A Brief Guide to the Dark Ages
Background reading for my Dark Ages collection
The Dark Ages for Britain is between the departure of the Romans in 410 and the arrival of the Normans in 1066
Anglo-Saxon coastline from David Hill, An Atlas of Anglo-Saxon England (1981). The pale areas marked 'sea, swamp or alluvium' show where little Anglo-Saxon settlement occurred, because, according to Hill, there was at different periods either large areas of mud, marshland or open sea.
Some locations are estimates as not enough evidence exists for accurate placements. Additional information A.J. Sefton (2012).
Some locations are estimates as not enough evidence exists for accurate placements. Additional information A.J. Sefton (2012).
This map shows the major - and not so major- kingdoms of Britain during the sixth to ninth centuries. Places significant to my Dark Ages books are also included.
'Dark Ages' is a term that refers to the time between the Roman occupation of Britain and the conquest by the Normans in the eleventh century. During this time settlers from modern-day Germany - Angles, Saxons and Jutes - created several kingdoms in mainland England, the indigenous peoples of Wales and Scotland remained separate.
The number of kingdoms rose and fell according to the result of takeovers and alliances, but there were seven main ones that were consistent at this time. Often referred to as the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy, (accredited to Henry of Huntingdon in the twelfth century) these were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex and Kent (Cantaware). Out of these, four were considered higher status: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and Wessex.
When the Danes took over huge swathes of the east of England, Alfred of Wessex became the leader of the Anglo-Saxons. Eventually Mercia, Sussex and Kent were absorbed into Wessex by 825. Northumbria was controlled by the Norwegian invaders and then reclaimed by the Anglo-Saxon rulers several times until definitively brought under English control by Eadred in 954.
On 12 July 927 the rulers of all the British kingdoms met in Cumbria and declared that Aethelstan was the king of the English. This in effect dissolved all kingdoms although the country was divided between the English and the Danes until the Norman conquest in 1066.
'Dark Ages' is a term that refers to the time between the Roman occupation of Britain and the conquest by the Normans in the eleventh century. During this time settlers from modern-day Germany - Angles, Saxons and Jutes - created several kingdoms in mainland England, the indigenous peoples of Wales and Scotland remained separate.
The number of kingdoms rose and fell according to the result of takeovers and alliances, but there were seven main ones that were consistent at this time. Often referred to as the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy, (accredited to Henry of Huntingdon in the twelfth century) these were Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Wessex, Sussex, Essex and Kent (Cantaware). Out of these, four were considered higher status: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and Wessex.
When the Danes took over huge swathes of the east of England, Alfred of Wessex became the leader of the Anglo-Saxons. Eventually Mercia, Sussex and Kent were absorbed into Wessex by 825. Northumbria was controlled by the Norwegian invaders and then reclaimed by the Anglo-Saxon rulers several times until definitively brought under English control by Eadred in 954.
On 12 July 927 the rulers of all the British kingdoms met in Cumbria and declared that Aethelstan was the king of the English. This in effect dissolved all kingdoms although the country was divided between the English and the Danes until the Norman conquest in 1066.
Mercia
This is where I live. Technically it's Staffordshire but it used to be Mercia, meaning 'border people'. It's origins are a bit hazy but evidence has shown that the Angles inhabited the area around the River Trent by the sixth century, the first king or chieftain being Icel in about 527.
The capital of Mercia was Tamworth (previously known as Tameworth and Tomtun) and the site of Tamworth Castle is the approximate site of the first royal fortress, built in the 580s. The rise of the kingdom started with Penda, who has the dubious reputation of being the top regicide by killing five kings. He was also the last pagan king of England but had no problem with the missionaries from Lindisfarne spreading the word.
Penda's sons were also kings and Wulfhere reclaimed the territory lost when Penda was killed by the Northumbrian king, Oswiu. After that brief blip, Mercia continued to be a powerful kingdom and reached its height in the mid eighth century when Offa became king. He is famous for the wall separating Mercia from Wales - Offa's Dyke. Although now there is evidence that its formation started earlier. Offa created the first gold coins, market towns and negotiated with Charlemagne as an equal. This period between 600 and 900 was named the 'Mercian Supremacy' by the historian Sir Frank Stenton.
Mercia lost power in 918 when it was annexed by Wessex. The ruler then was Aelfwynn, the daughter of the Lady of the Mercians, Aethelflaed, who succeeded her after her mother's death. She lasted only six months, some theories say that she went into a nunnery but either way Wessex had taken Mercia under its wing. In the eleventh century Mercia was divided between Canute and Edward Ironside. And everything ended when the Normans conquered in 1066 anyway.
Mercia also has the Staffordshire Hoard, a collection of treasure found stashed in a farmer's field. From this we learned that Mercia - as well as all of the Dark Age kingdoms - was much more advanced and sophisticated than we first thought.
J.R.R. Tolkien was an expert in the Mercian dialect and I like to think that some of the landscape in Lord of the Rings was based in my town. All of my Dark Age books are set in Mercia. Therefore, every day is research day, no matter what I do.
This is where I live. Technically it's Staffordshire but it used to be Mercia, meaning 'border people'. It's origins are a bit hazy but evidence has shown that the Angles inhabited the area around the River Trent by the sixth century, the first king or chieftain being Icel in about 527.
The capital of Mercia was Tamworth (previously known as Tameworth and Tomtun) and the site of Tamworth Castle is the approximate site of the first royal fortress, built in the 580s. The rise of the kingdom started with Penda, who has the dubious reputation of being the top regicide by killing five kings. He was also the last pagan king of England but had no problem with the missionaries from Lindisfarne spreading the word.
Penda's sons were also kings and Wulfhere reclaimed the territory lost when Penda was killed by the Northumbrian king, Oswiu. After that brief blip, Mercia continued to be a powerful kingdom and reached its height in the mid eighth century when Offa became king. He is famous for the wall separating Mercia from Wales - Offa's Dyke. Although now there is evidence that its formation started earlier. Offa created the first gold coins, market towns and negotiated with Charlemagne as an equal. This period between 600 and 900 was named the 'Mercian Supremacy' by the historian Sir Frank Stenton.
Mercia lost power in 918 when it was annexed by Wessex. The ruler then was Aelfwynn, the daughter of the Lady of the Mercians, Aethelflaed, who succeeded her after her mother's death. She lasted only six months, some theories say that she went into a nunnery but either way Wessex had taken Mercia under its wing. In the eleventh century Mercia was divided between Canute and Edward Ironside. And everything ended when the Normans conquered in 1066 anyway.
Mercia also has the Staffordshire Hoard, a collection of treasure found stashed in a farmer's field. From this we learned that Mercia - as well as all of the Dark Age kingdoms - was much more advanced and sophisticated than we first thought.
J.R.R. Tolkien was an expert in the Mercian dialect and I like to think that some of the landscape in Lord of the Rings was based in my town. All of my Dark Age books are set in Mercia. Therefore, every day is research day, no matter what I do.
Northumbria
Some places seem to have it all. In the comparatively short time it existed, three hundred years, the Dark Age kingdom of Northumbria certainly left its mark on British history.
It was established in 653 when two smaller kingdoms became united. These were Bernicia and Deira. The king of Bernicia, Aethelfrith, conquered Deira in 604 and created the new kingdom of Northumbria. Following that, however, consequent battles divided the former kingdoms and united them again. During the height of its power it dominated Mercia after defeating their king Penda, but lost territory to his son, Wulfhere. It also fell to Viking raids and Deira became part of the Danish Kingdom of York when the Great Heathen Army defeated King Osberht in 867.
The Vikings entered Northumbria via the Holy Island of Lindisfarne, which saw many great saints pass through it monastery and spread the word of Christianity to pagans in other kingdoms, notably Mercia. Northumbria also hosted the Easter debate at the Synod of Whitby with Saint Hild, where the Celtic system of dating Easter lost out to the Roman Catholic version, which we still use today. And there is Bamburgh Castle of course.
The borders of Northumbria were always fought over, notably with the Scots and Picts in the north. Nowadays most of Bernicia belongs to Scotland. But because Northumbria was so northern it never really became part of England until after 1066 and the Norman conquest. Even then, it remained largely independent and rebellious and this continued into Tudor times. Northumbria had its own distinct dialects and even its own tartan, which was one of the earliest in Europe. York, Whitby, Edinburgh (Scotland), Lindisfarne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Middlesborough are some of the modern-day places from the old Northumbrian kingdom.
The most famous kings include Edwin, Oswald and Oswiu (see them in my books Guflyrian and Teon) but probably the most famous son is the Venerable Bede who wrote his many books while living at Jarrow, including my go-to research source, The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
But they don't have it all their own way. The weather truly is dreadful.
Some places seem to have it all. In the comparatively short time it existed, three hundred years, the Dark Age kingdom of Northumbria certainly left its mark on British history.
It was established in 653 when two smaller kingdoms became united. These were Bernicia and Deira. The king of Bernicia, Aethelfrith, conquered Deira in 604 and created the new kingdom of Northumbria. Following that, however, consequent battles divided the former kingdoms and united them again. During the height of its power it dominated Mercia after defeating their king Penda, but lost territory to his son, Wulfhere. It also fell to Viking raids and Deira became part of the Danish Kingdom of York when the Great Heathen Army defeated King Osberht in 867.
The Vikings entered Northumbria via the Holy Island of Lindisfarne, which saw many great saints pass through it monastery and spread the word of Christianity to pagans in other kingdoms, notably Mercia. Northumbria also hosted the Easter debate at the Synod of Whitby with Saint Hild, where the Celtic system of dating Easter lost out to the Roman Catholic version, which we still use today. And there is Bamburgh Castle of course.
The borders of Northumbria were always fought over, notably with the Scots and Picts in the north. Nowadays most of Bernicia belongs to Scotland. But because Northumbria was so northern it never really became part of England until after 1066 and the Norman conquest. Even then, it remained largely independent and rebellious and this continued into Tudor times. Northumbria had its own distinct dialects and even its own tartan, which was one of the earliest in Europe. York, Whitby, Edinburgh (Scotland), Lindisfarne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Middlesborough are some of the modern-day places from the old Northumbrian kingdom.
The most famous kings include Edwin, Oswald and Oswiu (see them in my books Guflyrian and Teon) but probably the most famous son is the Venerable Bede who wrote his many books while living at Jarrow, including my go-to research source, The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
But they don't have it all their own way. The weather truly is dreadful.
Wessex
Probably the most famous of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and one of the oldest. Wessex - 'west Saxons'.
The legend of the founding of Wessex begins in 495 when Cerdic and Cynric landed in Britain with five ships. Then Port, and his two sons Bieda and Maegla landed at Portsmouth (named after Port, no doubt) in 501 and killed somebody very high-ranking. A few years later, Cerdic killed a British king called Nantenleod and five thousand of his men. Cerdic thus became the first king of Wessex.
This is the story according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. There is archaeological evidence that Anglo-Saxons settled in the south and east coast of England around this time, although there are no records of a King Nantenleod. The kingdom of the west Saxons became Wessex and one of the most significant kingdoms in the heptarchy. It also had the only English king to be known as 'The Great' - Alfred.
What Alfred achieved was a unified England. Wessex was the only kingdom to survive the Viking raids as the forces known as the Great Heathen Army overpowered Northumbria, East Anglia and half of Mercia. In 886 Alfred declared a truce with the Danes that split the country, with the Vikings ruling the east and north, and the unified England ruling the south.
Danish attacks continued against Wessex and Mercia but they lost out to the hosts. After the death of the rulers of Mercia - Alfred's daughter and son-in-law - Edward, Alfred's son, took over and Mercia was no more an independent kingdom. In 927, the Wessex King Aethelstan conquered Northumbria and therefore all of England was under one ruler. On 12 July all monarchs agreed that Aethelstan should be the king of England. Wessex, the last Anglo-Saxon kingdom, was no more. But, like many of the other former kingdoms, it has kept its own dialect and culture to this day.
The former kingdoms became earldoms but that became irrelevant when William the Conqueror arrived in 1066...
Probably the most famous of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and one of the oldest. Wessex - 'west Saxons'.
The legend of the founding of Wessex begins in 495 when Cerdic and Cynric landed in Britain with five ships. Then Port, and his two sons Bieda and Maegla landed at Portsmouth (named after Port, no doubt) in 501 and killed somebody very high-ranking. A few years later, Cerdic killed a British king called Nantenleod and five thousand of his men. Cerdic thus became the first king of Wessex.
This is the story according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. There is archaeological evidence that Anglo-Saxons settled in the south and east coast of England around this time, although there are no records of a King Nantenleod. The kingdom of the west Saxons became Wessex and one of the most significant kingdoms in the heptarchy. It also had the only English king to be known as 'The Great' - Alfred.
What Alfred achieved was a unified England. Wessex was the only kingdom to survive the Viking raids as the forces known as the Great Heathen Army overpowered Northumbria, East Anglia and half of Mercia. In 886 Alfred declared a truce with the Danes that split the country, with the Vikings ruling the east and north, and the unified England ruling the south.
Danish attacks continued against Wessex and Mercia but they lost out to the hosts. After the death of the rulers of Mercia - Alfred's daughter and son-in-law - Edward, Alfred's son, took over and Mercia was no more an independent kingdom. In 927, the Wessex King Aethelstan conquered Northumbria and therefore all of England was under one ruler. On 12 July all monarchs agreed that Aethelstan should be the king of England. Wessex, the last Anglo-Saxon kingdom, was no more. But, like many of the other former kingdoms, it has kept its own dialect and culture to this day.
The former kingdoms became earldoms but that became irrelevant when William the Conqueror arrived in 1066...
East Anglia
In 1939, a self taught archaeologist, Basil Brown, said that he had made "the find of a lifetime." He wasn't joking.
What he discovered was the royal burial mounds of one of the kings from one of the most powerful kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England: East Anglia. The treasure he unearthed taught us more about the Dark Ages than anything that had gone before.
The unknown king (who may have been Raedwald) had a ship burial in a place called Sutton Hoo and alongside his body were wonderful treasures for him to take to the afterlife. The most famous of these is the magnificent mustachioed helmet, as demonstrated in the article about Raedwald, but he also had spoons and bowls, weapons, drinking horns and cushions. The items originated from faraway lands, indicating that there was a healthy trading community at this time.
The kingdom of East Anglia still bears the name today and is made up primarily of two counties: Norfolk (north folk) and Suffolk (south folk). It is the rounded bump on the east of England.
The Anglo-Saxons settled here in the early part of the fifth century and the rulers were known as Wuffingas, named after a legendary leader called Wuffa. Raedwald was the first Christian king and this was the golden age for East Anglia, one of the famous 'seven kingdoms', or heptarchy, of Dark Ages England. Pretty much most of the kings battled with the pagan king of Mercia, Penda, from then on. Many lost their lives and even when Penda died, the kingdom of Mercia remained aggressive until the kingdom of Wessex lent a hand. Read about Mercian battles with East Anglia in my book Gulfyrian.
The Vikings invaded and once again East Anglia was dominated by a more powerful force until they were eventually absorbed into England in the eleventh century. Any written records kept at the monasteries were destroyed by the Viking raids.
East Anglia has played its part in history but it is the treasures of Sutton Hoo that keeps it so special. The area is maintained by the National Trust and the goodies are housed at the British Museum. There is a Sutton Hoo Appeal set up to help aid further research.
In 1939, a self taught archaeologist, Basil Brown, said that he had made "the find of a lifetime." He wasn't joking.
What he discovered was the royal burial mounds of one of the kings from one of the most powerful kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England: East Anglia. The treasure he unearthed taught us more about the Dark Ages than anything that had gone before.
The unknown king (who may have been Raedwald) had a ship burial in a place called Sutton Hoo and alongside his body were wonderful treasures for him to take to the afterlife. The most famous of these is the magnificent mustachioed helmet, as demonstrated in the article about Raedwald, but he also had spoons and bowls, weapons, drinking horns and cushions. The items originated from faraway lands, indicating that there was a healthy trading community at this time.
The kingdom of East Anglia still bears the name today and is made up primarily of two counties: Norfolk (north folk) and Suffolk (south folk). It is the rounded bump on the east of England.
The Anglo-Saxons settled here in the early part of the fifth century and the rulers were known as Wuffingas, named after a legendary leader called Wuffa. Raedwald was the first Christian king and this was the golden age for East Anglia, one of the famous 'seven kingdoms', or heptarchy, of Dark Ages England. Pretty much most of the kings battled with the pagan king of Mercia, Penda, from then on. Many lost their lives and even when Penda died, the kingdom of Mercia remained aggressive until the kingdom of Wessex lent a hand. Read about Mercian battles with East Anglia in my book Gulfyrian.
The Vikings invaded and once again East Anglia was dominated by a more powerful force until they were eventually absorbed into England in the eleventh century. Any written records kept at the monasteries were destroyed by the Viking raids.
East Anglia has played its part in history but it is the treasures of Sutton Hoo that keeps it so special. The area is maintained by the National Trust and the goodies are housed at the British Museum. There is a Sutton Hoo Appeal set up to help aid further research.
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Kent (Cantware)
At school I remember learning about the Anglo-Saxons and Jutes but as I grew up I forgot about the Jutes and where they lived. Well into adulthood and research, they came back to me. They were the folk who inhabited the first 'Anglo-Saxon' kingdom (although they were not from the Angle nor Saxon tribes!) The story is wrapped in legend but elements, as always, will probably be true. The Briton King Vortigern was struggling to fend off enemies, such as the Picts and Scots, so invited the Germanic brothers Hengst and Horsa as mercenaries. Their reward would be the south east corner of the land: modern day Kent. The newcomers became known as the Cantware (sometimes Cantaware) and Kent is a derivative of that name. It can also be seen in the old capital, Canterbury. Kent became a strong independent kingdom and is traditionally included in the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. Their peak was in the late sixth century, as following that Kent was often subject to takeover by other kingdoms, notably Offa's Mercia in the eighth century. |
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Kent's location meant that trade was always viable. Although the kingdom was distinct in its identity from the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, for example, in the way that land was measured and inheritance patterns, archaeological evidence shows that a mix of peoples settled there or had a cultural influence. Probably other Germanic tribes arrived with the Jutes or moved later, but also grave goods suggest a strong link with the Franks. We know that the Frankish and Kentish rulers intermarried. This would have helped Kent's position to a large extent, particularly from invasion, but the import taxes and tolls would have contributed greatly to their wealth. It was a rich and desirable kingdom.
There is very little archaeological evidence found in settlement but plenty from grave goods and written texts, Kent giving us the earliest writing in England. By the early seventh century the texts give details of a series of kings and their laws.
Dark Ages Kent was roughly the same size as the modern county of Kent today. Canterbury is in this county as well, the name holding the clues. It is known as the 'garden of England' with its cultivated stately homes and landscape of orchards and hop production and the wonderful white cliffs of Dover. To this day, Kent is still an affluent part of Britain where the rich people retreat to.
There is very little archaeological evidence found in settlement but plenty from grave goods and written texts, Kent giving us the earliest writing in England. By the early seventh century the texts give details of a series of kings and their laws.
Dark Ages Kent was roughly the same size as the modern county of Kent today. Canterbury is in this county as well, the name holding the clues. It is known as the 'garden of England' with its cultivated stately homes and landscape of orchards and hop production and the wonderful white cliffs of Dover. To this day, Kent is still an affluent part of Britain where the rich people retreat to.
Penda of Mercia
A name easy to pronounce and remember. Its origins are unclear but there does not seem to be any Germanic connections. Which is strange given that the only Penda I know of was one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings ever to roam England.
The small unknown kingdom of Mercia developed into a powerful and influential one (and ultimately the Mercian Supremacy) thanks to this man. He was a warrior king from the Icel dynasty, one of twelve sons of Pybba and the last pagan king of England.
There is nothing good written about him. Bede, in his The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, frequently refers to Penda's paganism and his savage heathen ways. There is no doubt that he was a successful military leader and warrior. Penda holds the record for killing more kings than anyone else, a regicide who took the lives of five kings in battle.
Despite this, even Bede acknowledged Penda's fairness and tolerance. He allowed Christian missionaries to enter Mercia and funded abbeys and monasteries for several of his daughters, all of whom became Christian saints. Three of his sons became kings of Mercia, Peada, Wulfhere and Ethelred I, while one ruled a minor kingdom.
Penda battled many kingdoms during his reign but the arch enemy was always Northumbria. He killed two of the kings, Edwin and Oswald, and Oswald's body was famously mutilated and dismembered and hung on a tree, reputed to be Oswestry. Interesting to note that Bede was a Northumbrian.
Eventually, Northumbria won when Oswiu killed Penda in the Battle of Winwaed in 655, on 15 November. However, had Penda not kept Northumbria at bay for thirty or so years, Anglo-Saxon England may have been a very different place.
I imagine he was the mead hall hero in many of the stories in Dark Ages England, probably retelling his victories in battle for at least a hundred years. Alas, none of these tales remain.
Read about Penda in Gulfyrian and his son Wulfhere in Teon.
A name easy to pronounce and remember. Its origins are unclear but there does not seem to be any Germanic connections. Which is strange given that the only Penda I know of was one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings ever to roam England.
The small unknown kingdom of Mercia developed into a powerful and influential one (and ultimately the Mercian Supremacy) thanks to this man. He was a warrior king from the Icel dynasty, one of twelve sons of Pybba and the last pagan king of England.
There is nothing good written about him. Bede, in his The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, frequently refers to Penda's paganism and his savage heathen ways. There is no doubt that he was a successful military leader and warrior. Penda holds the record for killing more kings than anyone else, a regicide who took the lives of five kings in battle.
Despite this, even Bede acknowledged Penda's fairness and tolerance. He allowed Christian missionaries to enter Mercia and funded abbeys and monasteries for several of his daughters, all of whom became Christian saints. Three of his sons became kings of Mercia, Peada, Wulfhere and Ethelred I, while one ruled a minor kingdom.
Penda battled many kingdoms during his reign but the arch enemy was always Northumbria. He killed two of the kings, Edwin and Oswald, and Oswald's body was famously mutilated and dismembered and hung on a tree, reputed to be Oswestry. Interesting to note that Bede was a Northumbrian.
Eventually, Northumbria won when Oswiu killed Penda in the Battle of Winwaed in 655, on 15 November. However, had Penda not kept Northumbria at bay for thirty or so years, Anglo-Saxon England may have been a very different place.
I imagine he was the mead hall hero in many of the stories in Dark Ages England, probably retelling his victories in battle for at least a hundred years. Alas, none of these tales remain.
Read about Penda in Gulfyrian and his son Wulfhere in Teon.
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Wulfhere of Mercia
Anything valuable should be kept safe. And so it was with Wulfhere, one of the younger sons of King Penda of Mercia. When Penda was killed in the Battle of Winwaed in 655, Wulfhere and his younger brother were hidden away in a very safe place. Usually, royal children were fostered by other royal households, but there is no evidence where Wulfhere was taken. He was still a boy when Penda died and his older brother, Paeda, ruled as a puppet king to the Northumbrian who killed his father, Oswiu. But when Paeda was murdered by his wife (it is thought), the Mercian nobles decided that Oswiu would not be the one to take over the Midlands realm and make it part of Northumbria. The new king would be Penda's boy, Wulfhere. After his father's defeat, all but the very core of Mercia was lost. Wulfhere intended to regain all of the territories and then some. He married a daughter of the Kentish king in a clever political move and became a devout Christian, patronising churches, cathedrals and monasteries. His daughter was Wurburgh. He achieved all he set out to do and died at age thirty-five. His son was a child then and therefore could not take the throne, which went to Wulfhere's youngest brother, Ethelred. There are a couple of dubious myths about him...see my version in Teon. Wulfhere is one of my favourite kings and features as a central character in my book Teon He is immortalised on Lichfield Cathedral, which is very close to my home town, so I see him often. |
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Harold Godwinson, King of England
The last Anglo-Saxon king of England had a short reign, which ended at the Battle of Hastings.
1. Harold was born around 1020, the son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex.
2. His mother, Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, was sister-in-law of Canute, King of Denmark and England.
3. Two of Harold’s six brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine, also died at the Battle of Hastings alongside Harold, in 1066.
4. His sister, Edith of Wessex, married the English king, Edward the Confessor.
5. Harold’s marriage to Edith the Fair was not recognised or blessed by the Church.
6. Harold’s dispute with William the Conqueror stemmed from his shipwreck off the coast of Normandy in 1064, when he is said to have pledged support for William’s claim to England’s throne.
7. Another claimant was Harald Hardrada of Norway, whose invasion force was beaten by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066.
8. The earliest account of the Battle of Hastings said that Harold had been killed and dismembered by four knights.
9. The first report of Harold being shot in the eye with an arrow did not appear until 30 years later.
10. Harold Godwinson was crowned King of England on 6 January 1066.
The last Anglo-Saxon king of England had a short reign, which ended at the Battle of Hastings.
1. Harold was born around 1020, the son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex.
2. His mother, Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, was sister-in-law of Canute, King of Denmark and England.
3. Two of Harold’s six brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine, also died at the Battle of Hastings alongside Harold, in 1066.
4. His sister, Edith of Wessex, married the English king, Edward the Confessor.
5. Harold’s marriage to Edith the Fair was not recognised or blessed by the Church.
6. Harold’s dispute with William the Conqueror stemmed from his shipwreck off the coast of Normandy in 1064, when he is said to have pledged support for William’s claim to England’s throne.
7. Another claimant was Harald Hardrada of Norway, whose invasion force was beaten by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066.
8. The earliest account of the Battle of Hastings said that Harold had been killed and dismembered by four knights.
9. The first report of Harold being shot in the eye with an arrow did not appear until 30 years later.
10. Harold Godwinson was crowned King of England on 6 January 1066.
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It is the death of Harold that he mostly remembered for. Harold II, or Harold Godwinson, was shot in the eye with an arrow, legend has it, mostly because of the depiction from the Bayeux Tapestry, at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. Arguably the most famous date in English history. Certainly for school children anyway.
However, the most important fact is that Harold was the last Anglo-Saxon king. When he died, Anglo-Saxon England was gone forever. The victor was William the Conqueror from Normandy. He changed England by introducing a new language, a new system of government, a new way of administering justice and a new way to worship. But what of Harold? What happened to his body? The Song of the Battle of Hastings is the earliest known written account of of the battle, and says that William had Harold's body wrapped in purple linen and taken back to the base camp. His mother, Gytha, “in the tolls of overwhelming grief, sent to the Duke and prayed him to surrender to her” and offering to pay its weight in gold. William refused and said that he would rather “put him in charge of the shore of that very port – under a heap of stones”. If this is to be believed, then Harold was buried under William’s instructions with the inscription: ‘You rest here, King Harold, by order of the duke, so that you may still be guardian of the shore and sea.’ |
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Another theory is that Harold’s concubine, Edith Swan-neck, searched the battlefield for her lover’s body, recognising him only by an intimate birthmark. From there she took his body to Waltham and buried him in the Holy Cross church. I've also heard that it was Harold's wife who searched for his mutilated body. His limbs were hacked off and he was unidentifiable except for a tattoo on his chest.
Did Harold even die at the Battle of Hastings?
Some tales say not. According to one such tale, Harold spent two years recovering from wounds he received at Hastings before going on pilgrimage in France and England. He returned as an old man and lived as a hermit at Dover and Chester, where he revealed his true identity just before dying.
In 1163 Ailred of Rievaulx noted:
"... Harold himself was deprived of the kingdom of England, and either died wretchedly or, as some think, escaped to a life of penitence."
It's shame that the last Anglo-Saxon king had such a short reign of nine months. We remember him for having an arrow in the eye and dying at Hastings instead of being a great leader and king of England. Looking at the limited evidence, I like to think that the last king would have been memorable for being just that. Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 and died at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. On the nearest Saturday to the 14 October, a Medieval festival is held in the town of Waltham Abbey, Essex, to commemorate King Harold Day. Harold was Lord of the Manor of Waltham.
Did Harold even die at the Battle of Hastings?
Some tales say not. According to one such tale, Harold spent two years recovering from wounds he received at Hastings before going on pilgrimage in France and England. He returned as an old man and lived as a hermit at Dover and Chester, where he revealed his true identity just before dying.
In 1163 Ailred of Rievaulx noted:
"... Harold himself was deprived of the kingdom of England, and either died wretchedly or, as some think, escaped to a life of penitence."
It's shame that the last Anglo-Saxon king had such a short reign of nine months. We remember him for having an arrow in the eye and dying at Hastings instead of being a great leader and king of England. Looking at the limited evidence, I like to think that the last king would have been memorable for being just that. Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 and died at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. On the nearest Saturday to the 14 October, a Medieval festival is held in the town of Waltham Abbey, Essex, to commemorate King Harold Day. Harold was Lord of the Manor of Waltham.
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Ivar the Boneless
A giant of a man, reported to be around nine feet tall, Ivar was the son of the Danish Viking leader Ragnar Lodbruk. He headed up the Great Heathen Army (or Great Viking Army) intent on invading and conquering England in the ninth century. Records suggest that he died in Dublin in 873. Obviously, with a name like that, legend surrounds him. The story goes that his parents consummated their marriage before they should have and their baby (Ivar) had a curse put on him - namely that he had no bones. Difficult to imagine a great military leader having no bones. Theories have been that perhaps he was disabled and therefore carried around. It was thought that his body was buried in Repton as their is a very large skeleton in an important coffin dated to the time of his death. He has legs and there is no evidence that they didn't work properly. There are lots of tales of battles with English leaders, but the one where the Vikings were defeated (against Alfred of Wessex) Ivar did not take part. The Great Heathen Army landed at East Anglia and Edmund, the English Anglo-Saxon king, came to meet Vikings. There are different stories about this but suffice to say that Edmund was beheaded and/or shot to death with arrows. For a while, Edmund was England's patron saint and had one of the most popular pilgrimage sites until it was destroyed during the Reformation. The Heathen Army went on to fight Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria while Ivar joined forces with the Scots before moving to Ireland.
Ivar the Boneless is mentioned in my book Growing in Damp Places. |
Deusdedit of Canterbury - there was a solar eclipse on 1 May 664. This was quickly followed by a plague and Deusdedit, the first Anglo-Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury, caught it and died. Around the time of his passing, the clergy was discussing the finer details of Easter, such as how to date it. The Roman Catholics and the Celtic Church met at the Synod of Whitby and the Roman Church won. Read more about this in my novel Crushed. Deusdedit was born in Wessex and his Saxon name was Frithona. The other five Archbishops of Canterbury were either of French or Celtic heritage, so he was noteworthy as the first Saxon. Deusdedit is said to have hallowed Wulfhere's church Medehampstede (Peterborough) in Mercia. The charter, dated 657, contains his signature, although some historians argue about dates, as they do. I do not cover this event in Teon, but you can read about Wulfhere's early days in this gripping tale. The other significant feature about him is that he died of the Yellow Plague, which ran throughout England and Wales during 664. Many clerics died from it and some monasteries were left with no survivors at all. There is very little known of Deusdedit's early life, but after his death he was made a saint. His feast day of 14 July was designated a major feast day, so that should tell us how revered he was. He was buried in the church of Saint Augustine in Canterbury and his remains translated to the new abbey church in 1091. There may have been a cult surrounding him, maybe not, but his shrine survived until Henry VIII decided to dissolve the monasteries in the 1530s. That Tudor king has a lot to answer to. |
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Modwen, Patron Saint of Burton-upon-Trent - her feast day is 29 October. She is honoured as having brought Christianity to Burton by building a small chapel on a tiny island on the River Trent. She is also a significant character in my novel Gulfyrian. The image of the swan seen in Stapenhill Gardens, as school and football team emblems is down to Modwen's legend. Not least for the many great tales about her miracles, such as how she brought a swan back to life after it had been cooked and partially eaten! (Geoffrey of Burton, Life and Miracles of Saint Modwenna,Oxford University Press.) There are other stories as well - but can we trust them as true? Because so little of the Early Medieval period was recorded, part of Modwen's problem is that her life and stories are jumbled up with Modwenna of Ireland in the ninth century and another saint from Scotland called Modwenna. Who knows. |
Oswiu of Northumbria
Oswiu was a pivotal figure in the history of England and features in two of my novels (Gulfyrian and Teon). As king of Bernicia and then Northumbria, he had plans to rule over all the English kingdoms. The king of Mercia, Penda, had other ideas though. And hereby lies my dark tales... His brother, Oswald, ruled before him and was killed by Penda in a very brutal fashion, in 642 during the Battle of Maeserfield. The Mercians thwarted Oswiu's attempts to become overlord of the English kingdoms over many years until finally he defeated and killed Penda in 655 at the Battle of Winwaed. Before this, however, Oswiu was rumoured to have been involved in assassination plots and underhand dealings. He married often and gained territory as reward. Nice man. |
Raedwald of East Anglia
I have not yet visited East Anglia, that rotund bump on the east of England. I do want to. I have heard that it is very flat and as I prefer hilly and mountainous terrain, that puts me off a bit. But the draw is still there, because East Anglia - the kingdom of the East Angles - was home to one of the great seventh century Anglo-Saxon kings, Raedwald.
He was a dominant king in his day, and quite a maverick in that he was the first Christian king of East Anglia. It was not a popular decision and many of his advisers were against it as was his wife. To pacify them, Raedwald had two alters in his church: one Christian and one pagan. A true politician.
The most significant battle was the at the River Idle in the old kingdom of Lindsey. The bloody and savage battle confirmed Redwald's status as a powerful ruler of East Anglia. The Venerable Bede said that he: “held sway over all the provinces south of the Humber” meaning that he was bretwalda, or the overall ruler of the seven kingdoms. He gave sanctuary to the Northumbrian king, Edwin, who repaid him with military support at the Battle of River Idle.
Raedwald died around 624 or 625. And this is where it gets really interesting. There were a number of burial mounds at Sutton Hoo, in the former kingdom of East Anglia. In May 1939 the mound (known as mound one) was opened. Inside was a ship presented as a funerary right of passage, laden with treasure. The finds included finely-worked gold and silver, helmet and sword, drinking horns and gaming pieces, gold coins and silver spoons. Many of the finds were locally made, but others can be traced to Merovingian Gaul and the Byzantine Empire. It was a burial fit for a king. The equivalent of Tutankhamun's tomb.
We are not sure whose grave this was as no body was found, but the dating fits with that of Raedwald. The fact that he reconciled pagan and Christian and was the first Christian king to win a major battle surely would have brought him great wealth and prestige. Then, following the death of the king of Kent, Ethelbert, Raedwald took over the rule of the south of England. The burial ground suggests it was for someone of his status. I like to think that it is his and the famous helmet is based on his face. A very glamorous king indeed.
There is a Sutton Hoo Appeal to raise money for further research.
He was a dominant king in his day, and quite a maverick in that he was the first Christian king of East Anglia. It was not a popular decision and many of his advisers were against it as was his wife. To pacify them, Raedwald had two alters in his church: one Christian and one pagan. A true politician.
The most significant battle was the at the River Idle in the old kingdom of Lindsey. The bloody and savage battle confirmed Redwald's status as a powerful ruler of East Anglia. The Venerable Bede said that he: “held sway over all the provinces south of the Humber” meaning that he was bretwalda, or the overall ruler of the seven kingdoms. He gave sanctuary to the Northumbrian king, Edwin, who repaid him with military support at the Battle of River Idle.
Raedwald died around 624 or 625. And this is where it gets really interesting. There were a number of burial mounds at Sutton Hoo, in the former kingdom of East Anglia. In May 1939 the mound (known as mound one) was opened. Inside was a ship presented as a funerary right of passage, laden with treasure. The finds included finely-worked gold and silver, helmet and sword, drinking horns and gaming pieces, gold coins and silver spoons. Many of the finds were locally made, but others can be traced to Merovingian Gaul and the Byzantine Empire. It was a burial fit for a king. The equivalent of Tutankhamun's tomb.
We are not sure whose grave this was as no body was found, but the dating fits with that of Raedwald. The fact that he reconciled pagan and Christian and was the first Christian king to win a major battle surely would have brought him great wealth and prestige. Then, following the death of the king of Kent, Ethelbert, Raedwald took over the rule of the south of England. The burial ground suggests it was for someone of his status. I like to think that it is his and the famous helmet is based on his face. A very glamorous king indeed.
There is a Sutton Hoo Appeal to raise money for further research.
Alfred 'The Great' of Wessex
Alfred is a very special English king. Here are ten facts about him:
1. Alfred the Great is best remembered for his victories against the Vikings. At that time, his kingdom, Wessex, was the only one not to have been attacked by the Vikings.
2. Legend has it that while hiding from the Vikings in a cowherd’s hut on a marshy island in Somerset, Alfred was scolded by the man’s wife for letting her loaves (or ‘cakes’) burn.
3. Alfred is the only English monarch to be known as ‘the Great’.
4. Alfred once disguised himself as a minstrel to sneak into a Viking camp to spy on them. Armed with his harp, he dazzled the Danes with tunes he had learnt as boy, and stayed at the camp for several days.
5. It’s believed that Alfred suffered from what we now know as Crohn's disease – a type of inflammatory bowel disease that causes abdominal pain, diarrhoea, weight loss and fatigue.
6. He was buried in Winchester but his bones were moved several times and some were lost. It is thought that his pelvic bone was found in 2014.
7. Alfred was born Wantage, Oxfordshire, in 849 and became king of Wessex in 871. He died on 26 October 899.
8) Alfred was a learned scholar, judge, administrator and he introduced a fair legal system.
9. His three older brothers were kings before him - Ethelbald, Ethelbert and Ethelred - but all died young.
10. He is the originator of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Which is enough for him to be known as 'the Great' as far as I'm concerned.
Alfred is a very special English king. Here are ten facts about him:
1. Alfred the Great is best remembered for his victories against the Vikings. At that time, his kingdom, Wessex, was the only one not to have been attacked by the Vikings.
2. Legend has it that while hiding from the Vikings in a cowherd’s hut on a marshy island in Somerset, Alfred was scolded by the man’s wife for letting her loaves (or ‘cakes’) burn.
3. Alfred is the only English monarch to be known as ‘the Great’.
4. Alfred once disguised himself as a minstrel to sneak into a Viking camp to spy on them. Armed with his harp, he dazzled the Danes with tunes he had learnt as boy, and stayed at the camp for several days.
5. It’s believed that Alfred suffered from what we now know as Crohn's disease – a type of inflammatory bowel disease that causes abdominal pain, diarrhoea, weight loss and fatigue.
6. He was buried in Winchester but his bones were moved several times and some were lost. It is thought that his pelvic bone was found in 2014.
7. Alfred was born Wantage, Oxfordshire, in 849 and became king of Wessex in 871. He died on 26 October 899.
8) Alfred was a learned scholar, judge, administrator and he introduced a fair legal system.
9. His three older brothers were kings before him - Ethelbald, Ethelbert and Ethelred - but all died young.
10. He is the originator of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. Which is enough for him to be known as 'the Great' as far as I'm concerned.
Chad of Mercia
The 2nd March is the feast of Chad, a very famous saint in the midlands of England. There are many churches and schools named after him. King Wulfhere of Mercia asked for Chad to be the Bishop of Mercia. Chad chose to have his home at Lichfield in preference to Repton, where all the other Mercian Bishops had lived. From then on Lichfield became the spiritual centre of Mercia. He was an active churchman and was Bishop of Northumbria as well as serving as an abbot for many other monasteries in the north of England.
The historian and monk Bede featured Chad a lot, there was obviously an intense admiration. Chad came from a Christian family, his three brothers served at Lindisfarne. His older brother, Cedd, was brought to Mercia by King Penda - read about this in Gulfyrian. Poor Cedd died of the plague in 664 AD. Read about him and his death in Crushed.
Chad was a very humble man who refused to travel by horse preferring to walk on foot as the apostles did. He crossed all of Mercia spreading the word of Christ and converting the pagans to Christianity. King Wulfhere rewarded him by giving him plenty of land to build a monastery, as he did with all his missionaries.
Ironically, the name 'Lichfield' means field of the dead. This is said to have come from the belief that so many Christians had been murdered there. However, the cathedral is beautiful and has sculptures of a huge number of the characters in my books! Lichfield Cathedral is my favourite cathedral in England and well worth a visit if you are in the Midlands.
The 2nd March is the feast of Chad, a very famous saint in the midlands of England. There are many churches and schools named after him. King Wulfhere of Mercia asked for Chad to be the Bishop of Mercia. Chad chose to have his home at Lichfield in preference to Repton, where all the other Mercian Bishops had lived. From then on Lichfield became the spiritual centre of Mercia. He was an active churchman and was Bishop of Northumbria as well as serving as an abbot for many other monasteries in the north of England.
The historian and monk Bede featured Chad a lot, there was obviously an intense admiration. Chad came from a Christian family, his three brothers served at Lindisfarne. His older brother, Cedd, was brought to Mercia by King Penda - read about this in Gulfyrian. Poor Cedd died of the plague in 664 AD. Read about him and his death in Crushed.
Chad was a very humble man who refused to travel by horse preferring to walk on foot as the apostles did. He crossed all of Mercia spreading the word of Christ and converting the pagans to Christianity. King Wulfhere rewarded him by giving him plenty of land to build a monastery, as he did with all his missionaries.
Ironically, the name 'Lichfield' means field of the dead. This is said to have come from the belief that so many Christians had been murdered there. However, the cathedral is beautiful and has sculptures of a huge number of the characters in my books! Lichfield Cathedral is my favourite cathedral in England and well worth a visit if you are in the Midlands.
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Cadmon
11 February is the feast of Cadmon, known for his hymn which came to him during the night in a dream. Very impressive. He lived during the time of my book Teon, in late seventh century England. He looked after the animals at Whitby Abbey under the guidance of the Abbess Hild, and at this point knew nothing about songs or poetry. The story about him comes from Bede (Ecclesiastical History of the English People). One night, says Bede, the monks at the monastery of Whitby Abbey were having one of those famous Anglo-Saxon feasts with lots of food, drinking and singing. In later times monks were forbidden to carry on in this way but the post-Roman Christian revival was in its infancy and needed to be popular. However, Cadmon was not keen on this partying as he did not know the words to any of the songs. So he took himself off to sleep outside with the animals. In his dream someone asked him to sing, and he refused. But then he produced a poem in praise of God. When he awoke the next morning he remembered his dream and the poem and developed it into quite a substantial one, later to be known as Cadmon's Hymn. He was taken to the abbess who tested him by giving him a challenge to create another religious poem. When he provided it by the next day, Abbess Hild believed that Cadmon had seen a vision from God and had been blessed with this gift. He took his monastic vows and learned lots of Christian texts in order to make more poems, which he set to music to form hymns. From then on he led a pious life and had a premonition of his death. Despite living like a saint, Cadmon was never recognised as one. Historians are divided on whether the story is true or not, as with many people and events of the Dark Ages there is little evidence to prove it. But I like this story and have included Cadmon in my book Teon, as one of his influences and guides. Not that Cadmon and Teon are in any way alike other than their career. Teon is a feckless travelling scop, only concerned with himself and an easy life. |
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Saint David, Patron Saint of Wales
At the time of David's life, in the sixth century, Saint David's was known as Menevia and David (or Dewi in Welsh) was the bishop there. He was nicknamed 'water drinker' because he ate a simple diet of vegetables and bread and probably drank no ale. Unusual for folk back then. Besides being the patron saint of Wales, David is also the patron of vegetarians. It is written that he refused his monks the use of oxen to pull the plough on the monastery farm. He said that "every man is his own ox" demonstrating a kindness to animals. Statues of him often depict a dove on his shoulder. Saint David was a real person, which is good because so many saints have little evidence to support their existence. However, there are several legends surrounding him:
At the time of David's life, in the sixth century, Saint David's was known as Menevia and David (or Dewi in Welsh) was the bishop there. He was nicknamed 'water drinker' because he ate a simple diet of vegetables and bread and probably drank no ale. Unusual for folk back then. Besides being the patron saint of Wales, David is also the patron of vegetarians. It is written that he refused his monks the use of oxen to pull the plough on the monastery farm. He said that "every man is his own ox" demonstrating a kindness to animals. Statues of him often depict a dove on his shoulder. Saint David was a real person, which is good because so many saints have little evidence to support their existence. However, there are several legends surrounding him:
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David died on 1 March 589 and was recognised as a saint by Pope Callixtus in 1120.
'Vortigern besieged in the tower' from Geoffrey of Monmouth's' Prophetiae Merlini'. Unknown illustrator, c. 1250-1270. Photograph courtesy of the British Library
Vortigern
He is one of the great legendary leaders of Britain. In true Dark Ages style, there is very little evidence about him or his achievements.
The Venerable Bede mentions him when he recounts the tale first written by Gildas (sixth century historian who unashamedly pines for the return of the Romans). Bede elaborates on Gildas' writing by including the name of Vortigern as the person responsible for inviting the first Anglo-Saxons to Britain (under Hengist and Horsa), to help him fight the Picts and Scots. As a reward, Vortigern gave them land in England. In some sources he is named as the king of the Britons although some historians suggest that this may be a title for a leader or overlord.
Later Britons made war on the newcomers, who became established in Kent. Four battles were fought and in the last one, according to the Historia Brittonum, (History of the Britons) the king’s son Vortemir, their leading opponent, was slain. The Historia Brittonum (Nennius) also records the massacre of the British nobles after the death of Vortemir and Vortigern’s subsequent grant of Essex and Sussex to the invaders.
No doubt that one of the enduring aspects of the legend of Vortigern is his association with the tales of King Arthur and his wizard, Merlin, as recorded in Geoffrey of Monmouth's book, Historia regum Britanniae. Unfortunately, some historians and scholars believe his work to be nothing more than national myth as opposed to history. Many agree with William of Newburgh, who wrote around 1190 that "it is quite clear that everything this man wrote about Arthur and his successors, or indeed about his predecessors from Vortigern onwards, was made up, partly by himself and partly by others".
Nevertheless, any story about the history of Anglo-Saxon Britain always starts with Vortigern.
He is one of the great legendary leaders of Britain. In true Dark Ages style, there is very little evidence about him or his achievements.
The Venerable Bede mentions him when he recounts the tale first written by Gildas (sixth century historian who unashamedly pines for the return of the Romans). Bede elaborates on Gildas' writing by including the name of Vortigern as the person responsible for inviting the first Anglo-Saxons to Britain (under Hengist and Horsa), to help him fight the Picts and Scots. As a reward, Vortigern gave them land in England. In some sources he is named as the king of the Britons although some historians suggest that this may be a title for a leader or overlord.
Later Britons made war on the newcomers, who became established in Kent. Four battles were fought and in the last one, according to the Historia Brittonum, (History of the Britons) the king’s son Vortemir, their leading opponent, was slain. The Historia Brittonum (Nennius) also records the massacre of the British nobles after the death of Vortemir and Vortigern’s subsequent grant of Essex and Sussex to the invaders.
No doubt that one of the enduring aspects of the legend of Vortigern is his association with the tales of King Arthur and his wizard, Merlin, as recorded in Geoffrey of Monmouth's book, Historia regum Britanniae. Unfortunately, some historians and scholars believe his work to be nothing more than national myth as opposed to history. Many agree with William of Newburgh, who wrote around 1190 that "it is quite clear that everything this man wrote about Arthur and his successors, or indeed about his predecessors from Vortigern onwards, was made up, partly by himself and partly by others".
Nevertheless, any story about the history of Anglo-Saxon Britain always starts with Vortigern.
The Dance Around the Maypole by Pieter the Elder Bruegel
Festivals and traditions
Life was hard and short, and without any of our modern-day entertainment, the folk of the Dark Ages celebrated as much as they could. Most festivals had a religious connection and was preceded by fasting and then fabulous feasts. This meant that the party was even better. The biggest was Easter (from the sixth century), Christmas being long and taking in winter solstice traditions too, its popularity growing steadily over the centuries. Here are a few of my other favourites:
Life was hard and short, and without any of our modern-day entertainment, the folk of the Dark Ages celebrated as much as they could. Most festivals had a religious connection and was preceded by fasting and then fabulous feasts. This meant that the party was even better. The biggest was Easter (from the sixth century), Christmas being long and taking in winter solstice traditions too, its popularity growing steadily over the centuries. Here are a few of my other favourites:
Bilberry Sunday - The calendar has shifted a bit over the last fifteen hundred years or so, as has the climate. So much so that bilberries were harvested throughout July in Celtic and Anglo-Saxon times. It was a job that the children could do, their little fingers could pluck the berries from the low-growing shrubs without crushing them. Quite a tedious job but there were other benefits. Spending so much time in the sunshine hunting for these little jewels often led young people into courtship. The story goes that a young lady would bake a bilberry pie for the young man who caught her eye and give it to him during the celebrations that followed. On the last Sunday of July a great feast took place where people ate the bilberry produce. Pies, jams, tarts and wine were no doubt consumed as well as the general merriment of the day. On the 1st August the Celtic peoples celebrated their god Lugh, in a festival named Lughnasadh. This was the first harvest festival of the year and the crop of bilberries was said to indicate how well the rest of the crops would fare in their harvests later in the year. During the celebrations, people would climb hills where bilberries grew. I love that. Bilberry Sunday continued for a few centuries in Ireland, but even that has died out now. 
Maythorn. Photograph by A.J. Sefton
May Day celebrations have taken place for thousands of years, particularly in the northern European countries. Remnants of the old Beltane celebrations still exist, including the Maypole dancing and the selection of the May queen. Beltane was the Celtic and Gaelic festival of summer - bearing in mind the shift of two weeks in the calendar would make a difference to the weather and it was likely that it was quite warm by then, certainly the tree blossom would be out in all its glory. Cattle would be put out to pasture (cows were producing more milk at this time too) and the Beltane festival would include rituals to protect the beasts from disease, which involved decorating the animals with flowers. The festival folk also asked the gods to help with fertility of the cattle, crops and people. Incidentally, it coincided with the Roman festival of Flora, the goddess of flowers and so the customs complemented each other with lots of flowers around. When Christianity took over, Beltane, like many other pre-Christian festivals, became re-branded as a Christian celebration. In this instance Beltane became May Day - Mary's Day. Added to the fun was traditional English morris dancing, fetes and craft stalls.There were often visits to wells, which were sacred and connected to many saints, including Saint Modwen (read about her in Gulfyrian). In modern times there are often parades and home-made maypoles and the dance around the main Maypole that left an intricate weaved pattern of ribbons. In some places festivities include well-dressings. A May queen is chosen to symbolise purity and youth and she starts the celebrations. And like all good traditional festivals, Oliver Cromwell banned May Day when England was in its brief state of being a republic. Not that anyone took any notice of that. In the twentieth century May Day became associated with labourers and was declared a bank holiday in many countries to honour the workers. But whatever the reason, I enjoy the celebrations especially as there involves a holiday in England. This year I have my own Maypole to dance around, too. I'm wishing for a good summer with lots of flowers, apples, tomatoes and peas. And tassels and streamers. |
Wassail - For the ordinary people of the Dark Ages, twelfth night fell on 30 December and there was often another ritual slaughter to mark this. Although the aim was to appease the gods, thank them for that year's harvest and ask them to help the success of the next one, the sacrificial beasts also enabled the people to have food to see them through the winter. The main time to sacrifice ox, pigs and sheep was in November, Blot month, Blot meaning 'blood'. The blood was offered to the gods by means of feeding it to the ground while the carcass was cut up and salted. Another way to serve the gods and tree spirits was to prepare a warm drink made from apples, honey and spices. This was poured on the roots of apple trees when they were leafless and dormant (December) to chase away the bad spirits and awaken the good ones, thus bringing the trees into life again. I cover this in my book The Dark Garden. The drink varied from region to region but was similar to mulled wine or cider. After serving the gods and trees, people toasted each other and wished them good health. The lords or thegns of Anglo-Saxon villages would welcome the new year by shouting 'good health' to his villagers. 'Waes hael' was what he actually would have said. Over time this has changed to wassail and usually refers to the drink itself instead of the wishing of good health bit these days. In some areas this tradition has been revived and people go door to door 'wassailing' after Christmas Day, often on Boxing Day, New Year's eve or twelfth night. Here they offer the wassail or mulled wine updated with exotic fruits like oranges and lemons and spices such as cloves and cinnamon. Often folk share festive food, such as mince pies. This goodwill was believed to ensure good fortune during the next year. A nice tradition to maintain. The Anglo-Saxons and Norse folk believed in a goddess called Idunn who kept some very special apples. They had the power of eternal youth and the gods needed them to keep alive, as the Norse and Anglo-Saxon gods were not immortal as many other gods appear to be. The god of mischief, Loki, had fun with Idunn and the magic apples, according to the Old Norse manuscripts. Idunn is a major feature in my book The Dark Garden. Apples were also saved for the drink and festival of Wassail.
In Cornwall the festival of Allantide took place on 31 October and included the giving of Allen apples. Before the end of October Allen markets would sell the special red, shiny apples so folk could give them as gifts. Lovely tradition. Evolved into the modern Halloween apple eating games of today. 
Lammas - an ancient festival connected to harvest, which became Christianised (loaf-mass) when the first harvest of wheat was taken into church, often presented in a decorative wreath. Originally the festival was held on 1 August in honour of the Celtic god Lug, or Lugh and the first harvested wheat was made into bread, which was broken into four pieces and placed in the barn to bring a good harvest the following year.
Harvest Festival - has ancient roots, too. Celebrated on the Sunday nearest the Harvest moon, which is the first full moon following the autumnal equinox in the middle of September. There is plenty of praying and people bring in to church (or the sacred place) offerings from their harvest. These were shared out and the lord or landowner would provide a feast for his workers.
Halloween - the Celtic peoples of Britain, Ireland and northern France, had a festival called Samhain, which heralded the end of the year after the harvest. On that night, 31 October, the spirits of dead ancestors came to visit. It wasn't a spooky or scary time, though. Lighted lanterns (made from turnips as pumpkins were from the Americas) lit the way so the spirits could get back to their graves before dawn. The festival had bonfires and celebrations led by the priests, who were known as druids.
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Feasting scene from the Bayeux Tapestry
How to Speak Like an Anglo-Saxon
The language spoken by the first English people - the Anglo-Saxons - was mainly written phonetically, which means that almost all letters are pronounced. It also reflects the distinct dialects of the areas: Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; Mercian, spoken in the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; West Saxon, spoken south and west of the Thames; and Kentish, spoken in the district around Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most nearly akin to the Mercian. However, the best known of them is the West Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901), 'Alfred the Great', wrote and spoke.
In my Dark Ages books I write in a very modern style but some names of people or places inevitably are Anglo-Saxon. There were also some letters that no longer exist so I have adapted these words to our modern equivalents. This very basic guide hopefully makes reading easier.
The language spoken by the first English people - the Anglo-Saxons - was mainly written phonetically, which means that almost all letters are pronounced. It also reflects the distinct dialects of the areas: Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; Mercian, spoken in the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; West Saxon, spoken south and west of the Thames; and Kentish, spoken in the district around Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most nearly akin to the Mercian. However, the best known of them is the West Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901), 'Alfred the Great', wrote and spoke.
In my Dark Ages books I write in a very modern style but some names of people or places inevitably are Anglo-Saxon. There were also some letters that no longer exist so I have adapted these words to our modern equivalents. This very basic guide hopefully makes reading easier.
Anglo Saxon is pronounced the same as modern English with the following exceptions:
Vowels When two vowels are together the transition is smooth and produces only one syllable.
a when followed by n or m is pronounced o, as in hot.
ea as in pear.
i when long as in machine will be spelled ig but pronounced ee.
y is a vowel and is interchangeable with i.
Consonants Double consonants are pronounced twice.
c pronounced as k if before a, o or u and at the end of words with those vowels;
pronounced ch before e, i and y and at the end of words with those vowels.
cg is pronounced j.
f is unvoiced when at the beginning of a word or following double vowels;
voiced, pronounced v in all other instances.
g as in girl when before any consonant and a, o, u and y; after n; when doubled;
pronounced y if before e and i and after r and l.
h pronounced ch as in loch if after a, o and u and after consonants;
unvoiced after e, i and y.
hw similar to modern wh, as in white.
r pronounced the American way (rolled).
sc pronounced sh as in shop.
Therefore Gulfyrian is pronounced g-u-l-v-i-r-ee-o-n.
Vowels When two vowels are together the transition is smooth and produces only one syllable.
a when followed by n or m is pronounced o, as in hot.
ea as in pear.
i when long as in machine will be spelled ig but pronounced ee.
y is a vowel and is interchangeable with i.
Consonants Double consonants are pronounced twice.
c pronounced as k if before a, o or u and at the end of words with those vowels;
pronounced ch before e, i and y and at the end of words with those vowels.
cg is pronounced j.
f is unvoiced when at the beginning of a word or following double vowels;
voiced, pronounced v in all other instances.
g as in girl when before any consonant and a, o, u and y; after n; when doubled;
pronounced y if before e and i and after r and l.
h pronounced ch as in loch if after a, o and u and after consonants;
unvoiced after e, i and y.
hw similar to modern wh, as in white.
r pronounced the American way (rolled).
sc pronounced sh as in shop.
Therefore Gulfyrian is pronounced g-u-l-v-i-r-ee-o-n.
Runes
The runic alphabet is the oldest Germanic script. It was used by them and the Norse peoples of Scandinavia and Iceland. There may have been some influence from the Latin language brought by the Romans. First records date from around the third century, but it is thought to have developed from a more ancient system. The symbols were designed to be carved onto stone, wood or horn, therefore they were made up of straight lines. I tried this out when I was studying a course on the history of the English language as part of my bachelors degree. It is much easier to carve straight lines!
The runic alphabet is the oldest Germanic script. It was used by them and the Norse peoples of Scandinavia and Iceland. There may have been some influence from the Latin language brought by the Romans. First records date from around the third century, but it is thought to have developed from a more ancient system. The symbols were designed to be carved onto stone, wood or horn, therefore they were made up of straight lines. I tried this out when I was studying a course on the history of the English language as part of my bachelors degree. It is much easier to carve straight lines!
The word rune signifies mystery and hidden knowledge and has many magical connotations, even today. They are significant in my book Teon, the runes in the picture above are from the cover. Extensive research was needed here, but fortunately part of my degree course involved the study of runes. Isn't education great?
The myth of the runes comes from ancient Norse. Odin (or Woden to the Anglo-Saxons) sacrificed his eye to gain knowledge and wisdom. The runes will only appear to those worthy of their power and insight and Odin/Woden hung from the great tree of life, Yggdrasil, for nine nights. He pierced himself with his spear and hung there, without food or water and forbade anyone to help him. After he had proved his worthiness, the magic and secrets of the runes revealed themselves in the waters below him. His tale is found in the epic poem, Poetic Edda:
The myth of the runes comes from ancient Norse. Odin (or Woden to the Anglo-Saxons) sacrificed his eye to gain knowledge and wisdom. The runes will only appear to those worthy of their power and insight and Odin/Woden hung from the great tree of life, Yggdrasil, for nine nights. He pierced himself with his spear and hung there, without food or water and forbade anyone to help him. After he had proved his worthiness, the magic and secrets of the runes revealed themselves in the waters below him. His tale is found in the epic poem, Poetic Edda:
I know that I hung on a windy tree
nine long nights,
wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,
myself to myself,
on that tree of which no man knows
from where its roots run.
No bread did they give me nor a drink from a horn,
downwards I peered;
I took up the runes, screaming I took them,
then I fell back from there.
(Translated by Carolyne Larrington)
nine long nights,
wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,
myself to myself,
on that tree of which no man knows
from where its roots run.
No bread did they give me nor a drink from a horn,
downwards I peered;
I took up the runes, screaming I took them,
then I fell back from there.
(Translated by Carolyne Larrington)
Food and Drink
Beer making has existed here for more than a thousand years. Monks at Burton Abbey (founded by Saint Modwen in the seventh or ninth century) were taking advantage of the high levels of gypsum in the water. This brought out the flavour of the hops and nowadays is recreated by adding sulphate. Saint Modwen features in my book Gulfyrian, alongside her home of Andressey Island on the River Trent.
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Mead: A Drink for Kings
It's strange to think how a sticky, sweet substance made by insects can wield so much power. I was sad to hear reports about the rapid decline in bee populations here in Britain. So we (my family) thought we'd do our bit by planting up a bee garden. This consists of flowers bees like to collect pollen from and some places for them to hide or nest in. It's coming on a treat, I'm pleased to say. Bees are essential for pollination but they also make honey. There has been evidence of human use of honey going back thousands of years - prehistory even - and in particular the use of the sweet substance in making honey wine, or mead. It has been said that the ancient Greeks referred to mead as the drink of the gods, and called it Ambrosia. Arguably mead was the first alcoholic drink known to man, who probably stumbled upon it accidentally. Given the sweet taste, golden colour and the intoxicating effects it's easy to see how many thought it was sent from the gods. Certainly a heavenly drink. And of course, anything belonging to the gods will possess divine powers. The Greeks believed that mead would prolong life, and bestow health, strength, virility, wit and poetry. Bring on the mead then. In the Early Medieval period, (Anglo-Saxon and Viking times in other words or Dark Ages) mead became the drink of kings and warriors.The Norse god of poetry, Brage, is said to have drunk mead from a Brage-beaker, later called the bragging cup. Boasting of the heroic feats took place in the great halls, which were also known as mead halls. For those who did not live to boast their own tales they could sup mead in Valhalla, the reward in the afterlife. Anglo-Saxons believed that mead was the bestower of immortality, poetry and knowledge. The perfect drink for kings then. Some of the mythology of mead still exists in our culture today. The term “honeymoon” comes from the tradition of giving bridal couples a moon's worth of honey wine, or mead. This was thought to ensure a fruitful union. The payment to the meadmaker was often increased if a son was born within nine months of the marriage. In southern Europe, grapes were easy to grow and wine production was much quicker than that of mead. Wine, therefore, became the drink of the Romans and those who lived in the Mediterranean region. When the Roman Empire was at its peak, wine was consumed throughout Britain. The grapes withered on the English vines though, so the Anglo-Saxon kings drank mead even though it was a costly process. It showed the peasants who had the wealth. Eventually mead production fell by the wayside. However, bees were thought to be messengers of gods and as such were treated with venerance. According to the poem Georgics by Virgil, bees fly in the sky in order to honour the goddess Aphrodite, for example. Mead and honey were used in rituals and ceremonies in many temples while people stuck to drinking the cheaper (and less holy) drinks of wine and ale. As churches began to make candles out of beeswax the status of the bee remained. My bee garden is not aimed at honey production for my own benefit. I will buy mead, for research purposes you understand, from my local supplier. World Honey Bee Day is on 19 August and I shall drink to that. Mead Day is on the 5 August. I shall drink to that, too. For research purposes. Happy Mead Day. 
Mead. Photograph by A.J. Sefton
Pudding? One of the sweet foods I often find during my research is a type of cake made from oats. The result of these cakes would be a cross between a cake and a flapjack. Other ingredients included honey, which was the source of sweetness as sugar was unknown in Britain at that time. There was also chopped fruit such as apples and, for the rich people, imported spices like cinnamon.
Trade with merchants from the far east was buoyant. It was surrounded in exotic mystery and no ordinary person understood the secrets of the foreign lands. The travellers would tell tales collected from their journeys. There would be magic and stories of strange beasts. Cinnamon, for example, came from the weird and wonderful Cinnamon bird. The birds made their nests from the twigs of the Cinnamon Tree and the spice sticks were collected from the nests. At the risk of losing one's life to the fiery dragon protector, no doubt. But for most people the cost of cinnamon would have been beyond them. Instead, their puddings would have relied on native fruits such as apples, pears, currants, strawberries, bilberries, cherries, plums and gooseberries, served with honey or cream. Baked apples were popular and I love these too, especially when they are cooked with currants stuffed inside. Mmm... Other puddings were shortbread, soft cheese pastries and fruit crumbles. |
Dark Age Comfort Food In these cold winter nights I often look forward to having something hot to eat. Yes, there is such a thing as comfort food. Did people from the past have the same yearnings? Of course they did. In Anglo-Saxon times most 'dinners' were variations of thick soups or stews, or briw as they were called. These were simply vegetables and grains boiled in a cast-iron cauldron or earthenware pot over a fire or sat in the hot ashes. Archaeological evidence has shown that this pottage was a staple food from Neolithic times to the Middle Ages across Europe. For most people, meat or fish was not the main feature of their meals. If it was used at all, it would have been used as flavouring although herbs were abundant as well as salt and pepper. There were no potatoes in England then, which seems odd having a stew without them, but there were plenty of other filling vegetables around. Recipes did not exist in written form as nothing was written down then but evidence of what folk ate has been found. The recipe I use is taken from the British Museum Cookbook. 
Photograph by A.J. Sefton
Sausages: An Ancient and Wonderful Food Most weekends we have sausage toasties for breakfast. Other times we have bangers and mash or sausage casserole. And of course, the classic full English breakfast. Sausages. They are so terribly British. They are convenient ways to eat meat and cereals, in skins and are accommodating with their shape. Sausage shape. They can be made from pork, beef, veal, soya, Quorn or blood, padded out (in most countries) with breadcrumbs, rice, barley or rusk. They can be flavoured with tomatoes, herbs, garlic and other spices. Each country or region has its own version and is proud of it, from the German all meat dried variety, to the fat, long-linked Cumberland sausage. Above all, children think they are great. Sausages have been around since forever - evidence suggests at least the Bronze Age. The word comes from the Latin 'salsus' meaning 'salted'. Later the French referred to the tasty little dish as ''saussiche', which is close to the name we use today in English. Sausage making and curing meats was a way for people to preserve meats before the time of refrigeration, so sausages were probably one of the best winter foods for centuries. The first written reference to sausages appeared in a Greek play in 500 BC, which was called The Sausage. There is evidence that suggests sausages were a popular food throughout the Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires. It was associated with the festival of Lupercalia where evil spirits were chased away and the city of Rome was purified. However, it was not to last. In 320, because of their association with pagan festivals, Roman Emperor Constantinus I and the Catholic Church made sausage eating a sin and their consumption was banned. This led to sausages going underground until the ban was lifted. Rebel food indeed. In Anglo-Saxon England it is believed that the sausage was introduced by the Romans. The poor folk relied on sausages for their meat consumption along with chicken and bacon. Other types of meat was for the nobility so most Anglo-Saxons had a vegetarian diet - except for sausages. As with everything Dark Ages, there are very few resources, although the Bayeux Tapestry does show cylindrical things being served. There is a scene in Teon where the main character obtains some sausages from people cooking them outdoors. Make him sick. Hopefully that won't happen to me when I have my toasties in the morning. Well, they are sinful, so it's a bit of a worry. |
Months and Moons
There were only two seasons - summer and winter. Like most other cultures the year was also divided by phases of the moon and what seasonal jobs were attached to them.
According Bede in his book The Reckoning of Time (written in Latin in 725), the Anglo-Saxon peoples of Britain used this calendar:
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Aeftere Giuli - Yuletide, late Yule or January, which was the first month of the year
Solmonath - month of cakes (or mud) - February Hrethmonath - month of the goddess Hretha – March Eosturmonath - month of the goddess Eostre – April Thrimilci - month when cows were milked 3 times a day – May Erra Litha - the season when the sea was calm enough to travel on – June and Aeftere Litha - July Weodmonath - month of weeds, probably meaning plant growth – August Haligmonath - holy month - September Wintirfyllith - winter-full - October Blodmonath - month of blood (when animals were killed for sacrifice and food) – November Erra Guili - Yuletide – December (then January again) early Yule |
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Eclipses were mentioned in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a non-fiction book instigated by Alfred the Great, and one of the major primary sources for this period in English history. Here, the event is linked to Earthly events: "the Moon was as if it had been sprinkled with blood, and Abp. [Abp. denotes "Archbishop"] Tatwine and Beda died and Ecgberht was hallowed bishop." The reference to blood was to the copper colour phenomenon that sometimes happens during a lunar eclipse, which also links to the blood of death. This happened on 24 January 734.
On Christmas day 828, the Chronicle says: "In this year the Moon was eclipsed on mid-winter's Mass-night, and the same year King Ecgbert subdued the kingdom of the Mercians and all that was South of the Humber." Again the link was made between events in the sky and on Earth.
In Crushed the solar eclipse of 664 is the start of so many bad things that actually did happen in that year. Read more to find out what.
In Gulfyrian I used an eclipse to the shadow the death of one of my main characters. I had done my research - although there may be a bit of poetic licence involved too. 15 November 654 was the date of the eclipse, but I'm not sure if it was visible over the area of the battle. I'm also not sure if the battle was fought in 654 or 655. But I'll go with whenever the eclipse was. It serves as an omen after all.
On Christmas day 828, the Chronicle says: "In this year the Moon was eclipsed on mid-winter's Mass-night, and the same year King Ecgbert subdued the kingdom of the Mercians and all that was South of the Humber." Again the link was made between events in the sky and on Earth.
In Crushed the solar eclipse of 664 is the start of so many bad things that actually did happen in that year. Read more to find out what.
In Gulfyrian I used an eclipse to the shadow the death of one of my main characters. I had done my research - although there may be a bit of poetic licence involved too. 15 November 654 was the date of the eclipse, but I'm not sure if it was visible over the area of the battle. I'm also not sure if the battle was fought in 654 or 655. But I'll go with whenever the eclipse was. It serves as an omen after all.
Dark Age Medicine
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Sometimes I sit and wonder at how amazing and advanced our medicine is. At other times, when I have a cold and it seems that nothing can cure me, I conclude that nothing has changed since the Dark Ages.
In many ways the ideas of the ancient Far East, Greeks and Romans have stood the test of time. Back then they knew the importance of a good diet and drinking plenty of fluids and their holistic approach of bathing, saunas and meditation is really quite a trendy medical phenomenon. Sadly, some of the more unsavoury and unsympathetic theories to illness are also still with us. Only a few years ago, some people blamed the severe floods in England on homosexuality. The devastating tsunami that occurred on Boxing Day in 2004 in the Indian Ocean was thought by some to have been God's punishment for the sins of people. A manager of England's national football team claimed that disabled people were born that way because of their own bad deeds in a former life. And so it goes on. (This is an idea I cover in Crushed.) This attitude stems from the fact that nobody knows why these natural disasters happen. In the same way, for thousands of years, no one was sure what caused disease. Bacteria and viruses were undiscovered until the late nineteenth century and so different causes had to be explained. The Greeks, Romans and Egyptians were keen to develop medical knowledge and made great strides in these areas. But the growth crumbled along with their empires. |
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Dental care - how did the Anglo-Saxons in Dark Ages England cope with their smiles? Archaeological evidence (that is, skeletons) has demonstrated that most people had good teeth with very few cavities. It is no surprise to us modern folk that the amount of sugar eaten corresponds to the amount of tooth decay. For the Anglo-Saxons, there was no refined sugar or carbohydrates but there were the natural sugars of fruit and honey. This would explain the tartar, hardened dental plaque, that has appeared on the skeletons' teeth. This also tells us that the Anglo-Saxons did not use toothbrushes like their peers in China did.
Researchers have found bits of bark between the teeth of our ancestors. This could mean that they were short of tasty food at some point and tried to eat trees, or that they were attempting to clean their teeth. Literature has mentioned 'chew sticks'. These were frayed twigs that were chewed in an attempt to clean teeth, in a similar way to the chews we give our pet dogs these days. So they did make an effort.
In the Leechbooks of Bald (found at the British Library) there are several remedies for toothache, so it wasn't unknown. One is: '...chew pepper often with the teeth, it will soon be better for him. Again boil henbane's root (Hyoscyamus niger) in strong vinegar or in wine, set it on the sore tooth, and let him chew it with the sore tooth sometimes; he will be hale' Other remedies exist, some seem to have a narcotic effect. They were probably the better ones.
Of course, prayers to Teutonic and Christian deities were always popular methods to cure toothache, as with everything else. Carrying amulets and reciting charms were common, too.
I'll give my daughter a posy of herbs next time her brace is playing up. Or maybe not.
Researchers have found bits of bark between the teeth of our ancestors. This could mean that they were short of tasty food at some point and tried to eat trees, or that they were attempting to clean their teeth. Literature has mentioned 'chew sticks'. These were frayed twigs that were chewed in an attempt to clean teeth, in a similar way to the chews we give our pet dogs these days. So they did make an effort.
In the Leechbooks of Bald (found at the British Library) there are several remedies for toothache, so it wasn't unknown. One is: '...chew pepper often with the teeth, it will soon be better for him. Again boil henbane's root (Hyoscyamus niger) in strong vinegar or in wine, set it on the sore tooth, and let him chew it with the sore tooth sometimes; he will be hale' Other remedies exist, some seem to have a narcotic effect. They were probably the better ones.
Of course, prayers to Teutonic and Christian deities were always popular methods to cure toothache, as with everything else. Carrying amulets and reciting charms were common, too.
I'll give my daughter a posy of herbs next time her brace is playing up. Or maybe not.
Monks blessing those infected with the Plague of Justinian
The First Plague Pandemic
Justinian. He was the last great Roman emperor and the first Byzantine emperor. This is why he should be remembered. Justinian was idealistic and his aim was to return the Roman Empire to its former glory. Part of that ambition was to claw back the territories lost to Barbarians in the west of Europe. Another part was to make the Empire superior in terms of reforming outdated laws, doing away with corrupt government and religious persecution. His vision was a better life for all citizens.
But this is not where the interest in him lies. At the height of his reign, in 542, the Empire was hit with a devastating plague. It was known as the Sixth Century Plague, but it returned again and again over a period of two hundred years. Many refer to it as Justinian's Plague.
It was first recorded in Egypt the year before but quickly spread through the Empire, Persia and southern Europe around the Mediterranean. Recent studies claim that the origin was China and the disease was spread via ships carrying grain. The death toll was in excess of twenty-five million people in the first outbreak, with an estimated total of fifty million over the two-hundred year period. It was the first recorded bubonic plague in history and one of the most deadly. In Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, it is thought that between five and ten thousand people died every day.
A report published by the Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences in the United States of America studied the DNA of the virus in various sites around Europe. The DNA samples were taken from twenty-one sixth century burials from Britain, France, Germany, Austria and Spain.
"This study shows the potential of palaeo genomic research for understanding historical and modern pandemics by comparing genomes across millennia," explains senior author Johannes Krause of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. "With more extensive sampling of possible plague burials, we hope to contribute to the understanding of Y. pestis' microevolution and its impact on humans during the course of past and present pandemics."
Evidence found by modern scientists indicate that the plague bacteria, and those that followed like the Black Death of the fourteenth century, dated from evolutionary radiation. Extreme weather events have been documented during this time that suggest some kind of dust cloud covered the Earth and affected crops and other vegetation. So, on top of the plague risk there would have been famine and other illness.
But how did this affect Justinian?
He caught the plague. He, remarkably, recovered. However, he showed no sympathy towards anyone else. Procopius, a Byzantine historian, said:
I studied Justinian's Plague as part of my research for Crushed, but there has been a renewed interest in pandemics since the dreaded Covid-19 brought the world to its knees in 2020. Who'd have thought. Grim stuff. Check out my book.
Justinian. He was the last great Roman emperor and the first Byzantine emperor. This is why he should be remembered. Justinian was idealistic and his aim was to return the Roman Empire to its former glory. Part of that ambition was to claw back the territories lost to Barbarians in the west of Europe. Another part was to make the Empire superior in terms of reforming outdated laws, doing away with corrupt government and religious persecution. His vision was a better life for all citizens.
But this is not where the interest in him lies. At the height of his reign, in 542, the Empire was hit with a devastating plague. It was known as the Sixth Century Plague, but it returned again and again over a period of two hundred years. Many refer to it as Justinian's Plague.
It was first recorded in Egypt the year before but quickly spread through the Empire, Persia and southern Europe around the Mediterranean. Recent studies claim that the origin was China and the disease was spread via ships carrying grain. The death toll was in excess of twenty-five million people in the first outbreak, with an estimated total of fifty million over the two-hundred year period. It was the first recorded bubonic plague in history and one of the most deadly. In Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, it is thought that between five and ten thousand people died every day.
A report published by the Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences in the United States of America studied the DNA of the virus in various sites around Europe. The DNA samples were taken from twenty-one sixth century burials from Britain, France, Germany, Austria and Spain.
"This study shows the potential of palaeo genomic research for understanding historical and modern pandemics by comparing genomes across millennia," explains senior author Johannes Krause of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. "With more extensive sampling of possible plague burials, we hope to contribute to the understanding of Y. pestis' microevolution and its impact on humans during the course of past and present pandemics."
Evidence found by modern scientists indicate that the plague bacteria, and those that followed like the Black Death of the fourteenth century, dated from evolutionary radiation. Extreme weather events have been documented during this time that suggest some kind of dust cloud covered the Earth and affected crops and other vegetation. So, on top of the plague risk there would have been famine and other illness.
But how did this affect Justinian?
He caught the plague. He, remarkably, recovered. However, he showed no sympathy towards anyone else. Procopius, a Byzantine historian, said:
- When pestilence swept through the whole known world and notably the Roman Empire, wiping out most of the farming community and of necessity leaving a trail of desolation in its wake, Justinian showed no mercy towards the ruined freeholders. Even then, he did not refrain from demanding the annual tax, not only the amount at which he assessed each individual, but also the amount for which his deceased neighbours were liable.
I studied Justinian's Plague as part of my research for Crushed, but there has been a renewed interest in pandemics since the dreaded Covid-19 brought the world to its knees in 2020. Who'd have thought. Grim stuff. Check out my book.
The King's Council, or witan, taken from 11th century image Old English Hexateuch
Crime & Punishment
Crime in society has always existed, but peace has always been the objective, even in the Dark Ages.
Laws were made by kings with the help of their advisers, known as the witan. Ordinary people had rights to protect themselves, their families and property, and it was up to them to seek justice. The nobles had their rights of privilege too.
In Anglo-Saxon times adultery was an offence that could end in death, sometimes by drowning. Slander would get your tongue cut out and thieves could have their hands cut off. In many cases though, fines were imposed for offences including murder of a freeman or slave. Only the murder of a noble would result in execution. Or if the king decided you needed to lose your head then so be it.
Early England was a violent and dangerous place and its lawlessness is well documented in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However, archaeologists studying burials from the seventh and eighth centuries believe that the larger kingdoms had secured a stable society. To maintain the peace kings introduced civil justice and law codes that included capital punishments for the very serious offences. Burials have been found in non-consecrated ground containing bodies of people who have been decapitated and with their hands tied: obviously criminals. Written sources have frequently mentioned the judicial courts and range of punishments and executions for the guilty. See Crushed for the types of trials carried out during the seventh century.
The results of trials were decided by leaders (kings or chieftains for example) and verified by clergymen. The use of juries didn't come about until the reign of Henry III in 1219. Trial by combat was introduced by William the Conqueror in 1066 and lasted until 1819.
There were plenty of hand-to-hand battles to account for the mutilated bodies found, but the way the criminals have been laid out indicates the purpose of their death. Many were buried face down with rocks on their backs as if to weigh them down and often they were buried in batches, suggesting particular execution periods. They were buried outside the towns or village borders as if they were not welcome in the community. There were many hangings, as the evidence of gallows suggests, but even so, heads were still cut off from the bodies. The reason for this is so that the person would not be resurrected or his spirit come back to haunt the living. I have included examples of this in Gulfyrian and The Dark Garden.
In December 2019 42 skeletons were found in a development site. They were all found face down with their hands tied behind their backs. First impressions are that they are from the Anglo-Saxon period, but archaeologists are yet to carry out a full study. Watch this space. This method of peace-keeping and control was designed to keep order and to inflict suffering on the wrong-doers. Thank goodness we no longer live in the Dark Ages...
Crime in society has always existed, but peace has always been the objective, even in the Dark Ages.
Laws were made by kings with the help of their advisers, known as the witan. Ordinary people had rights to protect themselves, their families and property, and it was up to them to seek justice. The nobles had their rights of privilege too.
In Anglo-Saxon times adultery was an offence that could end in death, sometimes by drowning. Slander would get your tongue cut out and thieves could have their hands cut off. In many cases though, fines were imposed for offences including murder of a freeman or slave. Only the murder of a noble would result in execution. Or if the king decided you needed to lose your head then so be it.
Early England was a violent and dangerous place and its lawlessness is well documented in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However, archaeologists studying burials from the seventh and eighth centuries believe that the larger kingdoms had secured a stable society. To maintain the peace kings introduced civil justice and law codes that included capital punishments for the very serious offences. Burials have been found in non-consecrated ground containing bodies of people who have been decapitated and with their hands tied: obviously criminals. Written sources have frequently mentioned the judicial courts and range of punishments and executions for the guilty. See Crushed for the types of trials carried out during the seventh century.
The results of trials were decided by leaders (kings or chieftains for example) and verified by clergymen. The use of juries didn't come about until the reign of Henry III in 1219. Trial by combat was introduced by William the Conqueror in 1066 and lasted until 1819.
There were plenty of hand-to-hand battles to account for the mutilated bodies found, but the way the criminals have been laid out indicates the purpose of their death. Many were buried face down with rocks on their backs as if to weigh them down and often they were buried in batches, suggesting particular execution periods. They were buried outside the towns or village borders as if they were not welcome in the community. There were many hangings, as the evidence of gallows suggests, but even so, heads were still cut off from the bodies. The reason for this is so that the person would not be resurrected or his spirit come back to haunt the living. I have included examples of this in Gulfyrian and The Dark Garden.
In December 2019 42 skeletons were found in a development site. They were all found face down with their hands tied behind their backs. First impressions are that they are from the Anglo-Saxon period, but archaeologists are yet to carry out a full study. Watch this space. This method of peace-keeping and control was designed to keep order and to inflict suffering on the wrong-doers. Thank goodness we no longer live in the Dark Ages...
Trial by fire involved the accused carrying a red-hot iron. (Getty images)
Wolves
It is no coincidence that my least favourite month is named after probably the least glamorous god. January, dragged down by the cold, poverty and the post-Christmas famine, is the most dreary of months. And what is worse, January somehow manages to be the longest month lasting seven weeks. At least.
The month was named after the Roman god, Janus. A joke there in itself. He was the god of the doorways and gates, hence the the designated deity for the new year. This in spite of the fact that the new year seemed to jump from January to March and, for the Celtic peoples of northern Europe, to November and then back to January again in the Roman style.
At the time of Bede (seventh - eighth century) in his book The Reckoning of Time, the Anglo-Saxons referred to January as Yule, lumped together with December as the winter month. The January full moon, was called the Moon After Yule and the full moon after that was called the Wolf Moon, and this often fell in January as well. In all likelihood, January was probably called Wolf Month by many of the ordinary folk. None of that god of doorways stuff, the folk of Dark Ages Europe dedicated the month to something they feared and respected in equal measure. They were more likely to lose their lives in January to the wolf (if the cold didn't get them) than any other month.
An opportunistic hunter, the wolf survives by hunting the weak and exposed at this time. The beasts probably came closer to the human settlements looking for food in January. With the crisp cold air and uncluttered landscape, the wolf howls would echo through the Anglo-Saxon world with a chilling warning. It was just a part of life then.
As a writer of stories from the Dark Ages, I have had to research the fauna of the Early Medieval period, especially the wolf so I can accurately portray the culture of the times. You can see my small reference to wolves on the smiling wolf emblem on Gulfyrian's sword.
Some historians believe that this is because it indicated the start of the wolf hunting season when nobles could demonstrate how brave they were by collecting wolf skins. Personally, I think it was named in honour of wolves. The wolf was a symbol of the god Woden and he was often portrayed with two, named Geri and Freki. This divine connection is shown by the number of kings with wolf in their names, such as Wulfhere and Raedwulf. Early Anglo-Saxons revered the wolf and would have been afraid of it too. No king was ever called 'Rat' as far as I know.
With the arrival of Christianity and the opposition to all things heathen, the wolf became a symbol of the devil. Werewolves and fairy stories depicting the wolf as horrendous instead of noble, abounded. Demonic beasts took on canine qualities and the wolf's reputation was reduced to the killer of children and livestock. It was hunted to extinction in England during the fifteenth century.
It is sad to think that the nurturing and protective qualities of the wolf have been forgotten. Mowgli may have been a fictitious character in Jungle Book, but there are a lot of cases where children have been raised by wolves, even in this day. All pet dogs, from the Jack Russell to the Great Dane have wolves as their ancestors. The things you love about your dog - loyalty, intelligence and so on - are also in the wolf. There are some organisations in Britain dealing with wolf conservation, such as UK Wolf Conservation Trust. There is some talk of reintroducing the wolf in Scotland but I can't see it happening in England. How long would it be before they were shot for worrying sheep?
There are no wolves where I live, but there are plenty of foxes. During January they carry out noisy courtship rituals that frighten me sometimes. The noises are a bit like the sounds of murder. At least how I imagine murder to sound. Perhaps that was what it was like when the wolves roamed Britain.
January is the beginning of a new year, and in Anglo-Saxon times that was an achievement worth celebrating. But in twenty-first century Britain we all worry in case the credit card bill finally finishes us off. Not to mention the spare tyre we're all carrying and the bad skin from too much cake and alcohol. Taking all that into consideration, plus the short days and reduced vitamin D, I really do not like January.
It is no coincidence that my least favourite month is named after probably the least glamorous god. January, dragged down by the cold, poverty and the post-Christmas famine, is the most dreary of months. And what is worse, January somehow manages to be the longest month lasting seven weeks. At least.
The month was named after the Roman god, Janus. A joke there in itself. He was the god of the doorways and gates, hence the the designated deity for the new year. This in spite of the fact that the new year seemed to jump from January to March and, for the Celtic peoples of northern Europe, to November and then back to January again in the Roman style.
At the time of Bede (seventh - eighth century) in his book The Reckoning of Time, the Anglo-Saxons referred to January as Yule, lumped together with December as the winter month. The January full moon, was called the Moon After Yule and the full moon after that was called the Wolf Moon, and this often fell in January as well. In all likelihood, January was probably called Wolf Month by many of the ordinary folk. None of that god of doorways stuff, the folk of Dark Ages Europe dedicated the month to something they feared and respected in equal measure. They were more likely to lose their lives in January to the wolf (if the cold didn't get them) than any other month.
An opportunistic hunter, the wolf survives by hunting the weak and exposed at this time. The beasts probably came closer to the human settlements looking for food in January. With the crisp cold air and uncluttered landscape, the wolf howls would echo through the Anglo-Saxon world with a chilling warning. It was just a part of life then.
As a writer of stories from the Dark Ages, I have had to research the fauna of the Early Medieval period, especially the wolf so I can accurately portray the culture of the times. You can see my small reference to wolves on the smiling wolf emblem on Gulfyrian's sword.
Some historians believe that this is because it indicated the start of the wolf hunting season when nobles could demonstrate how brave they were by collecting wolf skins. Personally, I think it was named in honour of wolves. The wolf was a symbol of the god Woden and he was often portrayed with two, named Geri and Freki. This divine connection is shown by the number of kings with wolf in their names, such as Wulfhere and Raedwulf. Early Anglo-Saxons revered the wolf and would have been afraid of it too. No king was ever called 'Rat' as far as I know.
With the arrival of Christianity and the opposition to all things heathen, the wolf became a symbol of the devil. Werewolves and fairy stories depicting the wolf as horrendous instead of noble, abounded. Demonic beasts took on canine qualities and the wolf's reputation was reduced to the killer of children and livestock. It was hunted to extinction in England during the fifteenth century.
It is sad to think that the nurturing and protective qualities of the wolf have been forgotten. Mowgli may have been a fictitious character in Jungle Book, but there are a lot of cases where children have been raised by wolves, even in this day. All pet dogs, from the Jack Russell to the Great Dane have wolves as their ancestors. The things you love about your dog - loyalty, intelligence and so on - are also in the wolf. There are some organisations in Britain dealing with wolf conservation, such as UK Wolf Conservation Trust. There is some talk of reintroducing the wolf in Scotland but I can't see it happening in England. How long would it be before they were shot for worrying sheep?
There are no wolves where I live, but there are plenty of foxes. During January they carry out noisy courtship rituals that frighten me sometimes. The noises are a bit like the sounds of murder. At least how I imagine murder to sound. Perhaps that was what it was like when the wolves roamed Britain.
January is the beginning of a new year, and in Anglo-Saxon times that was an achievement worth celebrating. But in twenty-first century Britain we all worry in case the credit card bill finally finishes us off. Not to mention the spare tyre we're all carrying and the bad skin from too much cake and alcohol. Taking all that into consideration, plus the short days and reduced vitamin D, I really do not like January.
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Cats
We are all well aware that the Egyptians thought of cats as gods while the late Medievalists thought of them as witches' familiars. But what about the Early Medieval period - Anglo-Saxon England? What side did they take then? For the cats, any human settlement means scraps of food, warmth, shelter. Wherever a farming community sets up, cats will move in. Crops provide food for rodents as well as people, so cats were - are - always valuable pest controllers. Archaeological evidence has shown where people gather, so do cats. But during the Dark Ages was this symbiotic relationship welcome? Kristopher Poole, from my old university, the University of Nottingham, carried out research into this topic and published the findings in 2014. Cat bones were found in York and the evidence suggests that the cats were skinned indicating that there was some who used cat fur. Poole says, “It would therefore seem that there was at least some commercial exploitation of cat furs in towns, although exactly how extensive this was is uncertain. Notably, none of the cut marks on cat bones from this period indicate that the cat was seen as a food source.” Cats being cats they ensured that humans didn't have it all their own way. Poole says, “There are clear examples of cats acting in ways which conflicted with human desires. In some cases, the cat may be involved in the ‘theft’ of food. Irish law codes from the seventh to eighth centuries mention the recompense a cat’s owner must pay to another human if their animal had stolen their food. Equally, in a situation familiar today, cats could defecate in unacceptable places, such as on the rushes of a floor. This was also dealt with under seventh to eighth century Irish law, with the cat owner having to compensate the landowner.” Of course, cats have an appeal to many people and they were kept as companions or pets. We know this from texts written at the time, such as the poem Pangur Bán, attributed to a nameless Irish monk about a cat called White Pangur, that cats were given names presumably because they were kept as pets. |
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The Yule Cat is a huge and monstrous cat from Icelandic folklore, who eats people who have not received new clothes before Christmas eve. Horrific. Children would be terrified of being eaten by the cat on Christmas eve. So they made sure all their chores were done before then so they could wear their new clothes. Oral tales about the fearsome cat have been around for centuries. His alleged owner is the giant Gryla who was mentioned in the thirteenth century Prose Edda, a book that also holds the earliest written stories of Valhalla and the Norse gods. However, the first written records of the Yule Cat only appeared in the nineteenth century from the poet Jóhannes úr Kötlum.
The concept of not having new clothes comes from the tradition of farmers using the threat of being eaten by the Yule Cat as an incentive for the workers to finish processing the wool before Christmas. When the work was completed the farmer gave his staff new Christmas clothes. This idea was taken and used against children like a 'naughty or nice' thing. The Prose Edda is held at Iceland's National Museum along with other primary sources about the Yule Cat and Christmas folklore. |
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The Loch Ness Monster
I, like most other people, stopped believing in dragons, elves, giants and fairies before I hit double figures. They just didn't make sense, there was no real evidence to support these things. Show me a photograph and I will believe the monsters existed. There were no photographs, so I stopped believing. Except for one. The Loch Ness Monster. For this creature, there is evidence.There have been many photographs and film footage over the years. The most famous was taken in 1933 and appeared in the newspaper The Daily Mail. The following year another photograph appeared from a different photographer. Stories of sightings increased from the 1930s following the building of a road, thus more visitors. Some of those who reported seeing the monster (or 'Nessie' as it was affectionately known) were respectable people, such as Doctor Robert Wilson whose picture became known as the 'Surgeon's Photograph' and film footage from a South African tourist, G. E. Taylor, an aeronautical engineer, and laboratory technician Gordon Holmes, among many others. |
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First records of Nessie come from the Dark Ages. On 22 August, 564, the Irish monk, Colomba (later to become a saint) had travelled to Pictland, as Scotland was then known, and came across a dead man being buried. The folk told him that the man was swimming in the river when he was attacked by a "water beast" which mauled him and dragged him underwater. They went out to rescue him in a boat, but he was dead.
Columba sent a follower, Luigne moccu Min, to swim across the river. The beast approached him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and said: "Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once." The sea monster stopped as if it had been "pulled back with ropes" and went away. This was seen as a miracle.
In more recent times the modern technology has added to the mystery. On 24 August 2011 Loch Ness boat captain Marcus Atkinson photographed a sonar image of a 1.5-metre-wide, unidentified object which seemed to follow his boat for two minutes at a depth of 23 metres, and ruled out the possibility of a small fish or seal. In 2014 Apple Maps produced a satellite image of a large creature just under the surface. Added to all the other sightings this seemed to prove the existence of Nessie for sure.
It is easy to believe a monster lives there. I visited when I was thirteen and was taken by the vastness of the loch. It is still and deep in a remote part of northern Scotland, trapped in the stark mountainous terrain. It is also eerily quiet.
Columba sent a follower, Luigne moccu Min, to swim across the river. The beast approached him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and said: "Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once." The sea monster stopped as if it had been "pulled back with ropes" and went away. This was seen as a miracle.
In more recent times the modern technology has added to the mystery. On 24 August 2011 Loch Ness boat captain Marcus Atkinson photographed a sonar image of a 1.5-metre-wide, unidentified object which seemed to follow his boat for two minutes at a depth of 23 metres, and ruled out the possibility of a small fish or seal. In 2014 Apple Maps produced a satellite image of a large creature just under the surface. Added to all the other sightings this seemed to prove the existence of Nessie for sure.
It is easy to believe a monster lives there. I visited when I was thirteen and was taken by the vastness of the loch. It is still and deep in a remote part of northern Scotland, trapped in the stark mountainous terrain. It is also eerily quiet.
The story of the Loch Ness Monster continued from then on. There have been a number of searches but none produced anything new. Some of the pictures have been proven to be a deliberate hoax, while others have been explained away as large catfish, groups of eels, otters, deer or birds. One theory is that an elephant escaped and lived in the area for a while. Others indicate trees, seismic waves or optical illusions. Given the strange shape of the loch, the depth and isolation it's easy to see how things can be interpreted as a huge monster. I wondered, and still do actually, if a prehistoric creature escaped the extinction of the dinosaurs and survived in Loch Ness. It has all the space it needs.
In 2018 an international team of scientists took 250 water samples at various depths throughout the loch, collecting all forms of environmental DNA for further analysis. They documented all aspects of life from fish and mammals to plants and insects, and set them against existing data. Unfortunately, nothing prehistoric was discovered.
Professor Neil Gemmell, a geneticist from New Zealand's University of Otago. said: "There's no shark DNA in Loch Ness based on our sampling. We can't find evidence of catfish or sturgeon either. There is a very significant amount of eel DNA...our data doesn't reveal their size, but the sheer quantity of the material says we can't discount the possibility that there may be giant eels in Loch Ness. Therefore we can't discount the possibility that what people see and believe is the Loch Ness Monster might be a giant eel."
Not everyone agrees, of course. Just another theory and there have been many of those.
Tourism and the silly souvenirs ensure the myth of Nessie will continue nevertheless. A good enough reason to visit the Loch Ness Centre and the dramatic terrain of the Highlands of Scotland. If you dare.
In 2018 an international team of scientists took 250 water samples at various depths throughout the loch, collecting all forms of environmental DNA for further analysis. They documented all aspects of life from fish and mammals to plants and insects, and set them against existing data. Unfortunately, nothing prehistoric was discovered.
Professor Neil Gemmell, a geneticist from New Zealand's University of Otago. said: "There's no shark DNA in Loch Ness based on our sampling. We can't find evidence of catfish or sturgeon either. There is a very significant amount of eel DNA...our data doesn't reveal their size, but the sheer quantity of the material says we can't discount the possibility that there may be giant eels in Loch Ness. Therefore we can't discount the possibility that what people see and believe is the Loch Ness Monster might be a giant eel."
Not everyone agrees, of course. Just another theory and there have been many of those.
Tourism and the silly souvenirs ensure the myth of Nessie will continue nevertheless. A good enough reason to visit the Loch Ness Centre and the dramatic terrain of the Highlands of Scotland. If you dare.
Horses
A stable diet. Bologneighs. Filly steak. There was a spate of bad jokes and puns around in January 2013 because of the 'horse meat scandal'.
In the UK and Europe certain foodstuffs - notably burgers and ready meals - had been contaminated with meat from horses instead of the meat of the label. Besides the dire jokes, the issues raised are twofold. First, the fraudulent labelling, which goes against the Trade Description Act. Second, the sheer horror many British people have about eating horses.
The question is why regular meat-eaters have a problem with horses when they are happy to eat cows, sheep and pigs. All animals are seen in the fields and appear content in our landscape. Yet unlike many Europeans we British find the idea of eating horses abhorrent.
But why?
The main argument centres around the status of the horse. Unlike other farm animals horses have been our companions for centuries. While they have been working animals since domestication (thousands of years ago) horses have, like dogs, been valued friends of man. Besides shouldering a workload horses have accompanied people during times of recreation and sport, been given names and a special place in our culture. There have been horse statues and medals for bravery. Horses served us during both world wars as modes of transport, pulling equipment and munitions as well as acting as ambulances for the injured soldiers. Before that, the cavalry underpinned all of the Empire's campaigns. Evidence of this is abundant in writings and paintings and kings often commissioned portraits of themselves with their horse. Until the development of the motor, horses were essential to keep British society moving. We celebrate National Horse Days. It's only right that we don't eat them, isn't it?
However, the argument falls a little here. In the Bayeux Tapestry where the battle of Hastings is portrayed, the English are differentiated by their lack of horses. The Normans, from northern France, are the victors on horseback. The French were utilising horses in battle before the British. Up until the Norman conquest all battles in England took place on foot (you can see examples of this in Gulfyrian and Teon). The English did have horses and used them for transporting goods, pulling carts and the aristocracy rode them to battle, but the cavalry arrived with the Normans. So, somewhere along the line the attitudes towards the horse for Britain was different than in France despite the French reliance on the beast. Horse meat is quite common in France and the French appear not to be squeamish about it.
A stable diet. Bologneighs. Filly steak. There was a spate of bad jokes and puns around in January 2013 because of the 'horse meat scandal'.
In the UK and Europe certain foodstuffs - notably burgers and ready meals - had been contaminated with meat from horses instead of the meat of the label. Besides the dire jokes, the issues raised are twofold. First, the fraudulent labelling, which goes against the Trade Description Act. Second, the sheer horror many British people have about eating horses.
The question is why regular meat-eaters have a problem with horses when they are happy to eat cows, sheep and pigs. All animals are seen in the fields and appear content in our landscape. Yet unlike many Europeans we British find the idea of eating horses abhorrent.
But why?
The main argument centres around the status of the horse. Unlike other farm animals horses have been our companions for centuries. While they have been working animals since domestication (thousands of years ago) horses have, like dogs, been valued friends of man. Besides shouldering a workload horses have accompanied people during times of recreation and sport, been given names and a special place in our culture. There have been horse statues and medals for bravery. Horses served us during both world wars as modes of transport, pulling equipment and munitions as well as acting as ambulances for the injured soldiers. Before that, the cavalry underpinned all of the Empire's campaigns. Evidence of this is abundant in writings and paintings and kings often commissioned portraits of themselves with their horse. Until the development of the motor, horses were essential to keep British society moving. We celebrate National Horse Days. It's only right that we don't eat them, isn't it?
However, the argument falls a little here. In the Bayeux Tapestry where the battle of Hastings is portrayed, the English are differentiated by their lack of horses. The Normans, from northern France, are the victors on horseback. The French were utilising horses in battle before the British. Up until the Norman conquest all battles in England took place on foot (you can see examples of this in Gulfyrian and Teon). The English did have horses and used them for transporting goods, pulling carts and the aristocracy rode them to battle, but the cavalry arrived with the Normans. So, somewhere along the line the attitudes towards the horse for Britain was different than in France despite the French reliance on the beast. Horse meat is quite common in France and the French appear not to be squeamish about it.
Archaeological evidence has proved that many horses were mature when they were buried, suggesting that they were not raised for meat. Graves of significant people, such as kings and leaders, had horses buried with them alongside food and treasures for the afterlife. The horse then, was thought of as a noble animal. According to research due to be published in the Oxford Journal of Archaeology, by Kristopher Poole, horses were available but very rarely eaten. The research analysed animal bone data and suggests that horses were eaten in early Anglo-Saxon northern Europe but reduced when England became Christian between the sixth and seventh centuries. The reason for this is that the Church associated the eating of horses with pagan rituals and discouraged it. The Norse god Odin and his Anglo-Saxon counterpart, Woden, were connected to the horse, especially the eight-legged beast Slepnir who led the Wild Hunt. The Christian Church obviously had a problem with the level of reverence given to the horse.
Yet this still does not explain why other Europeans eat horses and the British do not, as they too have been influenced by the Church. The reason, I believe, is that the fear of 'pagan food' is not why we hold the horse in such high regard. The horse goddess Epona was a Celtic deity also worshipped by the ancient Romans. However, the White Horse in Berkshire is a gigantic figure carved into the chalky rocks, making it a striking and imposing white shape. It was carved close by a an Iron Age fort and unlike later depictions of Epona. I don't believe there is any Roman connection at all. John X.W.P. Corcoran suggests that the Celtic version of the horse goddess originated from the Irish and Welsh as another manifestation of a mother-goddess, protector of the dead and representing fertility of the earth.
The horse is a sacred animal to the British. You wouldn't stick her in your burger bun, now would you?
Yet this still does not explain why other Europeans eat horses and the British do not, as they too have been influenced by the Church. The reason, I believe, is that the fear of 'pagan food' is not why we hold the horse in such high regard. The horse goddess Epona was a Celtic deity also worshipped by the ancient Romans. However, the White Horse in Berkshire is a gigantic figure carved into the chalky rocks, making it a striking and imposing white shape. It was carved close by a an Iron Age fort and unlike later depictions of Epona. I don't believe there is any Roman connection at all. John X.W.P. Corcoran suggests that the Celtic version of the horse goddess originated from the Irish and Welsh as another manifestation of a mother-goddess, protector of the dead and representing fertility of the earth.
The horse is a sacred animal to the British. You wouldn't stick her in your burger bun, now would you?
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Battle of Hastings
Hastings was not simply the site of a battle. It was the place where the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms disintegrated alongside the nobles, the culture and the language. It was the end of Dark Age England. Saturday 14 October 1066. William the Conqueror and his Norman armies defeated the king of England, Harold, the last Anglo-Saxon king. Alongside him, his brother, Leofwine, also lost his life as well as all of the senior ealdormen and nobles. William gave great chunks of England to the lords who helped him win. The official language became French and it remained French until Edward I decided that it should be English in the thirteenth century. The food changed and the names for it; lamb became mutton, hog became pork, mead drinking was replaced with wine. Castles sprang up everywhere at an alarming rate. No one could ignore the Norman presence. Christianity was enforced with a new, severe God-fearing mentality alongside new laws and new churches. And William sent his knights all over the country to make sure everyone knew who was in control with pledges of loyalty. Not forgetting taxes. |
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The Battle of Hastings
Following the death of Edward the Confessor, several contenders for the English throne came forward. Harold Godwinson was crowned but he had competitors. All claimed that Edward had named them as his successor. One was Harald Hardrada from Denmark, who was defeated at Stamford Bridge. Following the victory, Harold went to Senlac Hill, close to Hastings, to fight against the Duke of Normandy, William and his Norman army. Harold was defeated, his body never found.
Following the death of Edward the Confessor, several contenders for the English throne came forward. Harold Godwinson was crowned but he had competitors. All claimed that Edward had named them as his successor. One was Harald Hardrada from Denmark, who was defeated at Stamford Bridge. Following the victory, Harold went to Senlac Hill, close to Hastings, to fight against the Duke of Normandy, William and his Norman army. Harold was defeated, his body never found.
There were rewards, of course, for all those who welcomed the new Norman ways. They could join the society and be part of the feudal system. Babies were no longer named Ethelred, Godwin or Wulfhere but William, Robert and Richard. The new French England.
Every child is taught about the Battle of Hastings in 1066. I'm not sure they all see the significance. It was the end of the Dark Ages in England. Doesn't get any more significant than that.
Every child is taught about the Battle of Hastings in 1066. I'm not sure they all see the significance. It was the end of the Dark Ages in England. Doesn't get any more significant than that.
Professor Robert Bartlett explains the battle. From the BBC programme The Normans.
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Battle of Winwaed
15 November is the anniversary of the Battle of Winwaed, fought in 655 AD (some historians claim it was 654). This is the final battle in Gulfyrian. It is the test of Gulfyrian's prophecy that the world will end and his brother, King Penda, will lose his life. Ironically, November was referred to as Blood Month by many Anglo-Saxon people at that time. The location is thought to be around Leeds and the River Winwaed probably no longer exists, or perhaps it was the River Went. But at that time it was a very watery place, the north east of England. There had been lots and lots of rain, many rivers in that area had burst their banks. The victory was expected to be Penda of Mercia's as their army was three times the size of Northumbria's. But that rain kept falling. More men lost their lives through drowning than on the battlefield. With a few betrayals and dirty deeds to add to the Mercian army's woes, nothing went their way. The skills of the highly trained army were futile against the weather. Obviously, the world did not end that day. England did change though. To find out more you need to read Gulfyrian! There is a housing estate in Leeds called Penda's Fields, built in the 1980s, and a former railway station was named after him too. A few street names, such as Penda's Way, are around as well. These are not memorials but hints of where the battle may have taken place. One of the most popular theories is that it was fought at the stream known as Cock Beck and a pub stands there now. |
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The Cawood Sword
It's amazing what you can find on the riverbed. We were on holiday one year and someone collected fifteen mobile 'phones and three wallets. Shopping trolleys are the usual find at a particular spot on my local river. But I always hope that one day I might discover a sword just like someone did in the late 1800s.
The Viking sword was found on the bed of the River Ouse by Cawood Castle in Yorkshire. It still remains the best example of a Viking sword that we have although a near identical one was found in Norway, too. It was very well preserved and as such gives a rare glimpse into Viking style and metalwork. The elegance of this sword is remarkable. In its heyday it must have been a beautiful and striking object, obviously belonging to someone of influence and wealth.The quality of the steel matches its beauty. The exceptionally high carbon content shows that the sword was made of the hardest steel available at the time.This could also explain why the sword was so very well preserved.
There is an inscription that runs down the blade of the sword. On one side, it’s in capital Roman letters that do not form known words. On the other side, it’s in Lombardic script, undecipherable as well. The theory is that this may be a spell to give invincibility. Until the 1950s the Cawood sword was displayed at the Tower of London, but then it was sold to a private collector. Fortunately, after almost fifty years in private possession, the Yorkshire Museum in York took ownership, where it can be seen today. Of course, there is no need to rush to see it as it's obviously magic and designed to last forever.
Just like shopping trolleys.
It's amazing what you can find on the riverbed. We were on holiday one year and someone collected fifteen mobile 'phones and three wallets. Shopping trolleys are the usual find at a particular spot on my local river. But I always hope that one day I might discover a sword just like someone did in the late 1800s.
The Viking sword was found on the bed of the River Ouse by Cawood Castle in Yorkshire. It still remains the best example of a Viking sword that we have although a near identical one was found in Norway, too. It was very well preserved and as such gives a rare glimpse into Viking style and metalwork. The elegance of this sword is remarkable. In its heyday it must have been a beautiful and striking object, obviously belonging to someone of influence and wealth.The quality of the steel matches its beauty. The exceptionally high carbon content shows that the sword was made of the hardest steel available at the time.This could also explain why the sword was so very well preserved.
There is an inscription that runs down the blade of the sword. On one side, it’s in capital Roman letters that do not form known words. On the other side, it’s in Lombardic script, undecipherable as well. The theory is that this may be a spell to give invincibility. Until the 1950s the Cawood sword was displayed at the Tower of London, but then it was sold to a private collector. Fortunately, after almost fifty years in private possession, the Yorkshire Museum in York took ownership, where it can be seen today. Of course, there is no need to rush to see it as it's obviously magic and designed to last forever.
Just like shopping trolleys.
Battle of Maserfield
Oswestry is a quaint little market town in Shropshire on the Welsh border. There is a Roman hill fort and part of Offa's Dyke runs through it.
In 642 a battle between the Christian King Oswald of Northumbria and the pagan King Penda of Mercia took place here. The event was known as the Battle of Maserfield and Oswald was defeated. Penda mutilated his body and hung the limbs and head on a tree. It is suggested that this was part of the religious ritual of pagans but the Christians took this as a sign of martyrdom. Bede recalls that Oswald died in prayer, praying for the souls of his dead soldiers.
Oswald's body hung there for a year before his family removed it. Pilgrims visited the battlefield and took some of the blood-stained earth away with them, so much so that there was a crater left in the ground. A raven flew off with his right arm and when it dropped it, a spring sprung from that spot.
Oswald's cult grew and the tree where he hung grew, too. Obviously Oswald became a saint and his followers came from as far as Europe to visit the tree, the site of miracles. No longer did people visit Maserfield, they came to Oswald's Tree...which morphed into 'Oswestry'.
Oswestry is a quaint little market town in Shropshire on the Welsh border. There is a Roman hill fort and part of Offa's Dyke runs through it.
In 642 a battle between the Christian King Oswald of Northumbria and the pagan King Penda of Mercia took place here. The event was known as the Battle of Maserfield and Oswald was defeated. Penda mutilated his body and hung the limbs and head on a tree. It is suggested that this was part of the religious ritual of pagans but the Christians took this as a sign of martyrdom. Bede recalls that Oswald died in prayer, praying for the souls of his dead soldiers.
Oswald's body hung there for a year before his family removed it. Pilgrims visited the battlefield and took some of the blood-stained earth away with them, so much so that there was a crater left in the ground. A raven flew off with his right arm and when it dropped it, a spring sprung from that spot.
Oswald's cult grew and the tree where he hung grew, too. Obviously Oswald became a saint and his followers came from as far as Europe to visit the tree, the site of miracles. No longer did people visit Maserfield, they came to Oswald's Tree...which morphed into 'Oswestry'.
© Copyright 2012-2025 A.J. Sefton
